FUNERARY  URN  FROM  A  ZAPOTECAN  TOMB 

The  cylindrical  urn  is  concealed  behind  the  human  figure.  The  dress 
of  the  human  figure  consists  of  a  cape,  apron  and  a  widespreading 
headdress.  Over  the  face  is  worn  a  mask. 


AMERICAN  MU5LUM  OF  NATURAL  HI5TORY 

r    ANCILNT  CIVILIZATIONS 

OF 

MLXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


By  HLRBLRT  J.  5PINDLN 
1 1 

ASSISTANT  CURATOR  OF  ANTHROPOLOGY 


HANDBOOK  5LRILS  No.  3 


NLW  YORK 
1917 


F 


RESERVE  DUPU. 


PREFACE 

THIS  little  book  is  intended  as  a  general  commentary 
and  explanation  of  the  more  important  phases  of 
the  ancient  life  and  arts  of  the  Indians  of  Mexico  and 
Central  America,  and  especially  of  their  history.  The 
substance  of  it  is  drawn  from  many  sources,  for  the 
anthropologist  must  mould  together  and  harmonize 
the  gross  results  of  several  sciences.  Archaeology, 
ethnology,  somatology,  and  linguistics  all  make  their 
special  contributions  and  we  are  only  on  the  threshold 
of  our  subject.  In  the  Mexican  and  Central  American 
field  we  find  the  accumulated  writings  that  result  from 
four  hundred  years  of  European  contact  with  the 
Indians  and  in  addition  a  mass  of  native  documents  and 
monumental  inscriptions  expressed  in  several  hiero- 
glyphic systems. 

The  general  method  of  this  book  will  be  to  take  up  in 
order  the  recognized  "horizons"  of  pre-Columbian 
history,  beginning  with  the  earliest  of  which  we  have 
knowledge.  In  relation  to  each  horizon  we  will  examine 
the  records  and  discuss  the  principal  developments  in 
arts,  beliefs,  and  social  structures.  The  introductory 
chapter  is  designed  to  put  before  the  reader  such  facts 
as  may  be  necessary  for  a  ready  understanding  of  the 
discussions  and  explanations  that  will  follow. 

The  Mexican  Hall  of  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History  furnishes  illustrations  of  most  of  the 
facts  given  herewith.  This  Hall  contains  both  originals 
and  casts  brought  together  by  various  expeditions  of 
the  Museum  and  of  other  scientific  institutions.  The 
principal  patrons  of  science  whose  names  should  be 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the  upbuilding  of  these 


6  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

collections  are:  Willard  Brown,  Austin  Corbin,  R.  P. 
Doremus,  Anson  W.  Hard,  Archer  M.  Huntington, 
Morris  K.  Jesup,  James  H.  Jones,  Minor  C.  Keith, 
the  Duke  de  Loubat,  William  Mack,  Henry  Mar- 
quand,  Dr.  William  Pepper,  A.  D.  Straus,  I.  Mel. 
Strong,  Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  Henry  Villard,  William 
C.  Whitney.  But  thanks  are  also  due  to  innumerable 
persons  who  have  contributed  single  specimens  and 
small  collections  as  well  as  those  who  have  placed  in- 
formation at  the  disposal  of  the  scientific  staff.  The 
principal  collectors  have  been:  George  Byron  Gordon, 
Ales  Hrdlicka,  Carl  Lumholtz,  Francis  C.  Nicholas, 
Marshall  H.  Saville,  and  Eduard  Seler. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

PREFACE 5 

INTRODUCTION 13 

Geography  and  Natural  Environment.  History  of  European  Contact. 
Languages.  Ethnology.  Physical  Types. 

CHAPTER   I 
THE  ARCHAIC  HORIZON 43 

Stratification  of  Remains.  Invention  of  Agriculture.  Archaic  Figur- 
ines. Ancient  Customs.  Archaic  Pottery.  Stone  Sculptures  of  the 
Archaic  Period.  Extensions  of  the  Archaic  Horizon.  Local  Develop- 
ments of  Archaic  Art.  Summary. 

CHAPTER    II 
THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION 65 

Architecture.  Massive  Sculptural  Art.  Minor  Arts.  The  Serpent  in 
Mayan  Art.  The  Human  Figure.  Design  Composition  and  Per- 
spective. The  Mayan  Pantheon.  The  Mayan  Time  Counts.  Ele- 
ments of  the  Day  Count.  The  Conventional  Year.  The  Calendar 
Round.  Mayan  Numbers.  The  True  Year.  The  Lunar  Calendar. 
The  Venus  Calendar.  Hieroglyphs.  Codices.  Bases  of  Mayan  Chro- 
nology. Historical  Development  of  Art.  Dated  Monuments.  Books 
of  Chilan  Balam.  Correlation  with  Christian  Chronology.  Summary 
of  Mayan  History. 

CHAPTER    III 
THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS 137 

Zapotecan  Culture.  Totonacan  Culture.  The  Toltecs.  Xochicalco. 
San  Juan  Teotihuacan.  Tula.  Cholula.  The  Frontier  Cities  of  the 
Northwest.  Santa  Lucia  Cozumalhualpa.  The  Chorotegan  Culture. 
Isthmian  Gold  Work. 

CHAPTER  IV 
THE  AZTECS 177 

Mayas  and  Aztecs  compared  to  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  Chichimecas.  ' 
Aztecan  History.  Social  Organization.  The  Tecpan  or  Temple  Enclo- 
sure. The  Calendar  Stone.  Stone  of  Tizoc.  Coatlicue.  Mexican 
Writing.  Aztecan  Religion.  Conceptions  of  the  Universe.  Cere- 
monies. Poetry  and  Music.  Minor  Aztecan  Arts.  The  Tarascans. 
'*  Southern  Mexico.  Mitla.  .Aztecan  Influence  in  Central  America. 

CONCLUSION 223 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 225 

INDEX. .  229 


8  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

MAPS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Funerary  Urn  from  a  Zapotecan  Tomb Frontispiece 

Map  of  Mexico  and  Central  America  showing  the  Principal 
Archaeological  Sites  with  a  Detail  Insert  of  the  Valley  of 
Mexico Facing  42 

PLATES 

I.  a,  Village  Scene  in  Arid  Mexico;  b,  In  the  Humid  Low- 
lands      15 

II.  a,  Site  of  Pueblo  Viejo,  the  First  Capital  of  Guate- 
mala; 6,  A  Spanish  Church  at  the  Village  of  Camo- 
tan  on  the  Road  to  Copan 23 

III.  a,  View  of  the  Island  Town  of  Flo  res  in  Lake  Peten;  6, 

The  Sacred  Cenote  at  Chichen  Itza 28 

IV.  a,  A  Guatemala  huipili;  6,  Pouches  of  the  Valiente 

Indians 38 

V.  a,  Zapotecan  Girl  from  the  State  of  Oaxaca;  b,  Lacan- 

done  Woman  from  Southern  Mexico    ....       40 
VI.  a,  Large  Archaic  Figures  found  in  Graves  and  offering 
Evidence  of  Ancient  Customs  and  Arts;  6,  Archaic 
Figures  which  show  a  Quality  of  Caricature  or 

possibly  Portraiture 48 

VII.  a,  Stone  Sculptures  of  the  Archaic  Period;  b,  Typical 

Site  of  the  Archaic  Period 55 

VIIT.  Widely  Distributed  Female  Figurines 57 

IX.  Distribution  of  the  Archaic  Culture       .....       58 
X.  Distribution  of  Agriculture  in  the  New  World       .      .       60 
XI.  A  General  View  of  the  Ceremonial  Center  of  Copan  .       66 
XII.  a,  View  of  the  Plaza  at  Copan  from  the  Northwestern 
Corner;  6,  View  Across  the  Artificial  Acropolis  at 
Copan 68 

XIII.  A   Temple   at   Hochob   showing  Elaborate   Facade 

Decorations  in  Stucco 70 

XIV.  A  Sealed  Portal  Vault  in  the  House  of  the  Governor  at 

Uxmal 71 

XV.  a,  Realistic  Designs  on  Vases  from  Chama,  Guatemala; 
6,  The  Quetzal  as  represented  on  a  Painted  Cylin- 
drical Vase  from  Copan 78 

XVI.  Stela  13,  Piedras  Negras 90 

XVII.  a,  The  Upper  Portion  of  Stela  1  at  Yaxchilan,  dealing 
with  the  Heavens;  b,  Analogous  Detail  of  Stela  4, 

Yaxchilan  .  95 

XVIII.  Scheme  of  the  Mayan  Calendar  as  presented  in  the 

Codex  Tro-Cortesianus 102 

XIX.  Typical  Mayan  Inscription 106 


MAPS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

XX.  Page  24  Dresden  Codex 116 

XXI.  a,  Detail  of  the  Dresden  Codex  showing  Tonalamatl 
used  in  Divination:  6.  Analysis  of  the  above  Tona- 
lamatl, according  to  Forstemann 120 

XXII.  Development  in  Style  of  Carving  at  Copan     .      .      .     123 

XXIII.  General  View  of  Monte  Alban  from  the  North      .      .     138 

XXIV.  Detail  of  Monte  Alban  showing  the  Foundation  Walls 

of  Small  Cell-like  Rooms .140 

XXV.  Zapotecan  Potterv,  Incense  Burners,  and  Funerary 

Urns      . '.142 

XXVI.  a,  Sculpture  of  Stone  of  the  Early  Zapotecan  Period; 

b,  Jade  Tablets  pierced  for  Suspension       .      .      .     144 
XXVII.  Laughing  Head  of  the  Totonacs 147 

XXVIII.  a,  An  Elaborately  Carved  Stone  Collar;  6,  A  Palmate 

Stone  from  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz       ....     148 
XXIX.  The  Temple  at  Xochicalco  before  Restoration       .      .     154 
XXX.  a,  The  Temple  at  Xochicalco  after  Restoration;  b, 

Partial  View  of  the  Great  Pyramid  at  Cholula  .      .     156 
XXXI.  a,  Pottery  Plates  from  Cholula  with  Decorations  in 

Several  Colors;  b.  A  View  at  La  Quemada    .      .      .     159 
XXXII.  Stone  Slab  from  an  Ancient  Sepulcher  in  the  State  of 

Guerrero 165 

XXXIII.  a,  Finely  Carved  Ceremonial  Slab  found  at  Mercedes, 
Costa  Rica;  b,  Stone  Figure  from  Costa  Rica; 

c,  Ceremonial   Slab   decorated    with    Monkeys. 
Mercedes,  Costa  Rica 169 

XXXIV.  a,  The  GoldWork  of  the  Ancient  Mexicans;  b,  Orna- 

ment of  Gold  from  Costa  Rica 173 

XXXV.  A  Page  from  the  Tribute  Roll  of  Moctezuma  ...     178 
XXXVI.  Page  from  the  Codex  Telleriano  Remensis       ...     180 

XXXVII.  Sahagun's  Plan  of  the  Tecpan  in  Mexico  City       .      .     188 

XXXVIII.  The  Calendar  Stone  of  the  Aztecs 190 

XXXIX.  The  Shield  Stone  at  Cuernavaca 193 

XL.  Sculpture     representing     Coatlicue,     the     Serpent- 
Skirted  Goddess 195 

XLI.  Page  from  the  Tonalamatl  Section  of  the  Codex  Bor- 

bonicus 202 

XLII.  a,  Pictures  of  Tlaloc,  the  God  of  Rain,  and  of  Ehecatl, 
the  God  of  Winds,  in  the  Codex  Magliabecchiano; 
6.  Mexican  Genealogical  Table  on  Maguey  Paper  .     204 
XLIII.  a,  A   Page  from   the  Codex  Xuttall;   b,   Zapotecan 

Cruciform  Tomb  near  Mitla 219 

XLIV.  a.  Detail  of  Wall  Construction  at  Mitla;  b-c,  The  God, 

Macuilxochitl,  Five  Flower 221 


10  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

TEXT  FIGURES 

PAGE 

1.  The  Great  Snowstorm  of  1447  shown  in  the  Pictographic 

Record  of  the  Aztecs 13 

2.  A  Mexican  Picture  of  a  Volcanic  Eruption 16 

3.  Yucatan  Deer  caught  in  a  Snare 20 

4.  The  Moan  Bird,  or  Yucatan  Owl,  personified  as  a  Demi-god     .  20 

5.  Spanish  Ship  in  the  Aubin  Oodex 22 

6.  Cortez  arrives  with  Sword  and  Cross  and  Moctezuma  brings 

him  Gold 25 

7.  Ancient  Aztecan  Canoe 26 

8.  Design  on  Modern  Huichol  Ribbon 35 

9.  Woven  Pouch  of  the  Huichol  Indians 35 

10.  Atzcapotzalco  Destroyed 44 

11.  Diagram  of  Culture  Strata  at  Atzcapotzalco 45 

12.  Teocentli  or  Mexican  Fodder  Grass 46 

13.  Figurines  from  the  Earliest  Culture  Horizon  in  Mexico  ...  49 

14.  Archaic  Figurine  from  Salvador 50 

15.  Types  of  Eyes  of  Archaic  Figurines 51 

16.  Textile  Designs  painted  on  Archaic  Effigies 52 

17.  Typical  Tripod  Vessels  of  the  Archaic  Period,  from  Morelos, 

Mexico .  53 

18.  Series  showing  the  Modification  of  a  Celt  into  a  Stone  Amulet  54 

19.  Stone  Sculpture  with  protruding  Eyes  and  other  Archaic 

Characters.     Costa  Rica 62 

20.  Groundplans  of  Yaxchilan  Temples 72 

21.  Cross-section  of  Typical  Mayan  Temple  in  Northern  Yucatan .  73 

22.  Section  through  Middle  of  Temple  of  the  Cross 75 

23.  Mask  Panel  over  Doorway  at  Xkichmook.  Yucatan       ...  77 

24.  Design    on    Engraved    Pot    representing    Tiger   seated    in 

Wreathe  of  Water  Lilies.     Northern  Yucatan             ...  80 

25.  Painted  Design  on  Cylindrical  Bowl  showing  Serpent  issuing 

from  a  Shell.     Salvador 80 

26.  Mayan  Basket  represented  in  Stone  Sculpture 81 

27.  Typical  Elaborated  Serpents  of  the  Mayas 82 

28.  Conventional  Serpent  of  the  Mayas  used  for  Decorative  Pur- 

poses   83 

29.  Upper  Part  of  Serpent  Head  made  into  a  Fret  Ornament   .      .  85 

30.  Sculpture  on  Front  of  Lintel  at  Yaxchilan 87 

31.  Types  of  Human  Heads  on  the  Lintels  of  Yaxchilan       ...  87 

32.  Sculpture  on  Upper  Part  of  Stela  ll,Seibal 88 

33.  The  Ceremonial  Bar 91 

34.  The  Manikin  Scepter 91 

35.  The  Two-Headed  Dragon 92 

36.  Gods  in  the  Dresden  Codex 94 

37.  The  Twenty  Day  Signs  of  the  Mayan  Month 98 

38.  The  Nineteen  Month  Signs  ot  thelVIayan  Year 100 

39.  Bar  and  Dot  Numerals  of  the  Mayas 103 

40.  Face  Numerals  found  in  Mayan  Inscriptions 105 

41.  The  Normal  Forms  ot  the  Period  Glyphs 105 

42.  Face  Forms  of  Period  Glyphs 105 

43.  Representations  of  the  Moon 108 


TEXT  FIGURES  11 


PAGE 

44.  The  Last  Glyph  of  the  Supplementary  Series 109 

45.  Hieroglyphs  of  the  Four  Directions 114 

46.  Hieroglyphs  containing  the  Phonetic  Element  kin      .      .      .  114 

47.  Mayan  Ceremony  as  represented  in  the  Dresden  Codex       .      .  119 

48.  The  Front  Head  of  the  Two-Headed  Dragon  on  Stelae   at 

Piedras  Negras,  showing  the  increase  in  Flamboyant  Treat- 
ment   125 

49.  Grotesque  Face  on  the  Back  of  Stela  B,  Copan 126 

50.  Jaguar  in  Dresden  Codex  with  a  Water  Lily  attached  to  Fore- 

head       126 

51.  Late  Sculpture  from  Chichen  Itza ,   .  127 

52.  Comparison  of  Mayan  and  Zapotecan  Serpent  Heads     .      .      .  139 

53.  Bar  and  Dot  Numerals  combined  with  Hieroglyphs  on  Zapote- 

can Monuments 141 

54.  The  Eyes  of  Totonacan  Figurines 146 

55.  Jointed  Doll  of  Clay  from  San  Juan  Teotihuacan      ....  157 

56.  Vessel  with  "Cloisonne"  Decoration  in  Heavy  Pigments      .      .  162 

57.  The  Turtle  Motive  as  developed  in  Negative  Painting  with 

Wax  at  Totoate,  Jalisco 163 

58.  Jaguar  Head  on  Disk-Shaped  Stone.     Salvador        ....  164 

59.  Front  View  and  Profile  View  Serpent  Heads  in  Chorotegan 

Art 167 

60.  Jaguar  Design  associated  with  Figurines  that   still  retain 

Archaic  Characters.    Costa  Rica 168 

61.  Crocodiles  from  painted  Nicoyan  Vases 168 

62.  Highly  Conventionalized  Crocodile  Motive 170 

63.  Simple    Crocodile    Figures    in  Red  Lines  on  Dishes  from 

Mercedes,  Costa  Rica 171 

64.  Panels  containing  Crocodiles  painted  in  White  Lines  on  Large 

Tripod  Bowls  from  Mercedes,  Costa  Rica 171 

65.  Simplified  Crocodile   Heads  in  the  Yellow  Line   Ware  of 

Mercedes,  Costa  Rica 171 

66.  Conventional  Crocodiles  from  Costa  Rica  and  Panama        .      .  172 

67.  Pictographic   Record  of   the   Conquest   of   the   Springs   of 

Chapultepec 183 

68.  Details  from  the  Stone  of  Tizoc      ....            ....  194 

69.  Detail  showing  the  Construction  of  the  Face  of  Coatlicue    .      .  196 

70.  Hieroglyphs  of  Precious  Materials 197 

71.  Aztecan  Place  Names 198 

72.  Aztecan  Day  Signs 199 

73.  Variant  Forms  of  Aztecan  Day  Signs  ........  200 

74.  Aztecan  Numbers  and  Objects  of  Commerce 200 

75.  Analysis  of  Mexican  Record 201 

76.  Chalchuihtlicue,  Aztecan  Goddess  of  Water 205 

77.  A  Mexican  Orchestra 213 

78.  Mexican  Blanket  with  the  Design  representing  Sand  and 

Water 216 

79.  A  Year  Symbol  from  Southern  Mexico 218 

80.  Year  Bearers  in  the  Codex  Porfirio  Diaz  ascribed  to  the 

Cuicatecan  Tribe 218 

81.  Wall  Paintings  of  Mitla 222 


INTRODUCTION 


Geography  and  Natviral  Environment.  Un- 
fortunately the  terms  "Mexico  and  Central  America' '  are 
not  mutually  exclusive.  Central  America  is  a  natural 
division  comprised  between  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec 
and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Mexico  is  a  political 
division  that  includes  several 
states  in  Central  America, 
namely,  Chiapas,  Tabasco, 
Campeche,  Yucatan,  and  the 
territory  of  Quintana  Roo. 
The  ancient  high  cultures  of 
Mexico  hardly  extended  as  far 
north  as  the  Tropic  of  Cancer 
and  the  region  beyond  this  is 
of  slight  interest  to  us.  Posi- 
tions south  of  Mexico  will 
often  be  referred  to  the  areas 
of  the  modern  political  units 
although  these  have  no  im- 
mediate relation  to  pre-Span- 
ish  conditions.  These  political  units  are:  Guatemala, 
British  Honduras,  Honduras,  Salvador,  Nicaragua, 
and  Costa  Rica. 

Although  lying  within  the  tropics,  the  territory  ex- 
tending from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to  Central  Mexico 
exhibits  great  extremes  of  climate  and  topography  and 
hence  of  plant  and  animal  life.  The  year  is  everywhere 
divided  into  a  wet  and  a  dry  season  but  the  relative 
duration  of  each  depends  upon  land  form  and  altitude. 
The  coast  of  the  Pacific  is  considerably  drier  than  that 
of  the  Atlantic.  Three  climatic  zones  are  generally 
recognized,  namely,  the  Tierra  Caliente  (Hot  Land), 

13 


Fig.  1.  The  Great  Snow- 
storm of  1447  shown  in  the 
Pictographic  Record  of  the 
Aztecs  called  Codex  Telleri- 
ano  Remensis. 


14  MEXlt'6  AND1  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

Tierra  Templada  (Temperate  Land),  and  Tierra  Fria 
(Cold  Land),  and  in  some  regions  each  of  these  has  an 
arid  and  a  humid  strip.  The  change  from  luxuriant 
forests  to  open  thorny  deserts  is  often  very  sudden. 
On  the  high  plateau  or  Tierra  Fria  the  natural  warmth 
of  the  latitude  is  largely  overcome  by  the  altitude.  In 
the  Valley  of  Mexico  snow  falls  only  at  rare  intervals 
yet  chilling  winds  are  common  in  the  winter.  Much 
of  the  plateau  from  Mexico  south  into  Guatemala  is 
open  farming  land  well  suited  to  the  raising  of  maize 
and  wheat  where  water  is  sufficient.  The  shoulders  of 
the  mountains  bear  forests  of  pine  and  oak  while  the 
highest  peaks  are  crowned  with  perpetual  snow. 

A  description  of  the  mountains,  rivers,  and  lakes  will 
help  towards  an  understanding  of  the  problems  that 
are  before  us.  The  broad  plateau,  crossed  by  irregular 
ranges  of  mountains,  that  occupies  the  states  of  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona  continues  far  south  into  Mexico. 
On  the  western  rim  the  Sierra  Madre  lifts  a  great  pine- 
covered  barrier,  beyond  which  the  land  drops  off 
quickly  into  the  hot  fringe  of  coastal  plain  bordering 
the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  California.  The 
highest  mountains  of  the  western  Sierra  Madre  are  El 
Nevado  and  Colima,  the  first  a  snowy  peak  14,370  feet 
high  and  the  second  an  active  volcano  12,278  feet  high. 
On  the  western  rim  of  the  central  plateau  the  second 
Sierra  Madre  is  less  continuous  but  it  culminates  in  the 
loftiest  peak  of  all  Mexico — the  wonderful  cone  of 
Orizaba.  This  mountain  rises  from  the  tropical  jungles 
well  into  the  region  of  perpetual  snow  and  attains  an 
elevation  of  18,314  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  name  in 
Aztecan  is  Citlaltepetl,  which  means  Star  Mountain. 
Two  other  famous  peaks  of  Mexico  are  Popocatepetl 
and  Iztacchihuitl,  both  names  being  pure  Aztecan. 
The  first  means  Smoking  Mountain  and  the  second 


Plate  I.  (a)  Village  Scene  in  Arid  Mexico.  Cactus  and  other 
thorny  shrubs  are  ever  present.  The  houses  of  the  natives  are  of 
adobe  with  thatched  roofs.  (6)  In  the  Humid  Lowlands.  The 
view  shows  part  of  the  plaza  at  Quirigua  with  one  of  the  monuments 
almost  concealed  in  vegetation  of  a  few  months'  growth. 

15 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


White  Woman.  These  volcanic  crests  rise  into  the 
snowy  zone  from  the  table-land  which  is  itself  about 
8,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

In  southern  Mexico  the  plateau  area  enclosed  between 
the  principal  sierras  narrows  perceptibly,  because  the 
shore  line  of  tlje  Pacific  and  the 
mountain  range  that  parallels  it 
swing  more  and  more  towards  the 
east.  At  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuan- 
tepec  a  low  valley  separates  the 
highland  area  of  Mexico  from  that 
of  Central  America.  This  second 
table-land  is  not  so  wide  as  the 
one  we  have  just  considered  and 
is  more  deeply  dissected  by  rivers. 
The  mountains  of  Guatemala  rise 
to  a  considerable  altitude,  the 
highest  being  Tacana  with  13,976 
feet  elevation.  Active  volcanoes 
are  numerous  and  earthquakes 
frequent  and  often  disastrous. 
The  Volcan  de  Agua  and  the 
Volcan  de  Fuego  (Volcano  of 

Water  and  Volcano  of  Fire)  look  down  upon  Cuidad 
Vieja  and  Antigua  Guatemala,  the  old  Spanish  capi- 
tals which  each  in  turn  destroyed.  The  cordillera 
still  presents  its  most  abrupt  front  to  the  Pacific  and  on 
the  eastern  side,  in  Guatemala  and  Honduras,  there 
are  high  forest-bearing  ridges  between  the  river  sys- 
tems. The  Cockscomb  Mountains  in  British  Honduras 
are  a  low  outlying  group.  In  southern  Nicaragua  the 
main  chain  is  broken  by  a  low  broad  valley  that  extends 
from  ocean  to  ocean.  In  Costa  Rica  and  Panama  a 
single  range  stretches  midway  along  the  narrow  strip 
of  land,  with  peaks  that  rise  above  11,000  feet. 


Fig.  2.  The  Smoke 
reaches  the  Stars,  a 
Mexican  Picture  of  a 
Volcanic  Eruption  in 
the  Codex  Telleriano 
Remensis. 


INTRODUCTION  17 

The  lowlands  on  the  Pacific  side  of  our  area  form  a 
narrow  fringe  which  becomes  more  valuable  for  agri- 
cultural purposes  as  we  proceed  towards  the  south. 
The  lowlands  of  the  Atlantic  side  are  of  varying  widths. 
The  greatest  land  mass  of  uniformly  low  elevation  is 
the  Peninsula  of  Yucatan.  In  eastern  Honduras  and 
Nicaragua  there  are  extensive  river  valleys  of  low  ele- 
vation. 

The  river  system^  of  Mexico  and  Central  America 
flow  into  the  two  bounding  oceans  or  into  lakes  which 
have  no  outlets.  Several  closed  basins  occur  on  the 
Mexican  table-land.  The  Rio  Nazas  and  the  Rio 
Nieves  flow  into  salt  marshes  in  the  northern  state  of 
Coahuila.  But  the  most  important  interior  basin  is 
the  Valley  of  Mexico.  In  this  mountain  enclosed  val- 
ley, whose  general  level  is  7,500  feet  above  the  sea,  there 
are  five  lakes  which  in  order  from  north  to  south  are 
named  Tzompanco,  Xaltocan,  Tezcoco,  Xochimilco,  and 
Chalco.  The  last  two  contain  fresh  water,  since  they 
drain  into  Lake  Tezcoco,  but  the  rest  are  more  or  less 
brackish.  Lake  Tezcoco  is  by  far  the  largest  although 
its  area  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  natural  and  artifi- 
cial causes  since  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards. 

The  largest  river  of  Mexico  is  the  Rio  Lerma  which 
takes  the  name  Rio  de*  Santiago  during  its  deep  and 
tortuous  passage  from  Lake  Chapala  to  the  Pacific. 
Farther  to  the  south  is  the  Rio  de  las  Balsas  which  like- 
wise flows  into  the  western  ocean.  The  name  means 
"River  of  the  Rafts"  and  is  given  because  of  a  peculiar 
floating  apparatus  made  of  gourds  tied  to  a  wooden 
framework  that  is  used  on  this  stream.  Flowing  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are  several  large  streams,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  Panuco,  Alvarado, 
Grijalva,  and  Usumacinta.  The  last  is  by  far  the  great- 
est in  volume  of  water,  and  with  its  maze  of  tributaries 


18  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

drains  a  large  area  of  swamp  and  jungle  in  which  are 
buried  some  of  the  most  wonderful  ruined  cities  of  the 
New  World. 

In  the  northern  part  of  Yucatan  there  are  no  rivers 
on  the  surface  on  account  of  the  porous  Hmestone. 
Instead  there  are  great  natural  wells  called  cenotes 
where  the  roofs  of  subterranean  rivers  have  fallen  in. 
Many  of  the  ancient  cities  were  built  near  such  natural 
wells. 

Passing  to  the  south  the  most  important  river  of 
Guatemala  is  the  Motagua,  which  has  cut  a  fine  valley 
through  a  region  of  lofty  mountains.  In  Honduras  there 
are  several  large  rivers,  including  the  Uloa,  Patuca, 
and  Segovia.  The  lake  region  of  Nicaragua  is  drained 
by  the  San  Juan  River  that  flows  into  the  Caribbean 
Sea.  Nearly  all  the  streams  of  Central  America  that 
flow  into  the  Pacific  are  short  and  steep  torrents.  An 
important  exception  is  the  Lempa  River  that  forms 
part  of  the  interior  boundary  of  Salvador. 

Concerning  lakes,  mention  has  already  been  made  of 
Chapala  and  Tezcoco,  the  most  important  in  Mexico. 
The  former  is  about  fifty  miles  in  length.  In  the  state 
of  Michoacan  there  are  a  number  of  beautiful  lakes 
intimately  connected  with  the  history  and  mythology  of 
the  Tarascan  Indians.  The  most  famous  is  called 
Patzcuaro.  In  southern  Yucatan  the  shallow  body  of 
wrater  known  as  Lake  Peten  also  has  a  distinct  historical 
interest.  Several  lakes  in  Guatemala  are  well  known 
on  account  of  the  rare  beauty  of  their  situation.  Lake 
Atitlan  is  surrounded  by  lofty  mountains,  and  Lake 
Izabal,  or  Golfo  Dulce,  is  famous  for  the  luxuriance  of 
the  vegetation  that  screens  its  banks.  Lakes  Nica- 
ragua and  Managua  are  well  known  on  account  of  their 
connection  with  the  much-discussed  canal  projects. 


INTRODUCTION  19 

The  Island  of  Ometepec  in  Lake  Nicaragua  bears  an 
active  volcano. 

In  regard  to  the  geology  it  is  only  necessary  to  point 
out  a  few  of  the  more  important  characters.  The  high- 
lands which  bear  so  many  active  and  quiescent  volcanoes 
naturally  show  great  masses  of  eruptive  rocks,  some  due 
to  recent  action  and  others  much  more  ancient.  Porous 
tufa  is  a  common  material  for  sculptures  in  many  parts 
of  Mexico  and  Central  America.  In  other  places  there 
are  great  beds  of  softer  and  finer  grained  material  also 
of  volcanic  origin.  In  these  places,  such  as  Copan  in 
western  Honduras  and  Mitla  in  southern  Mexico,  build- 
ing in  stone  received  its  greatest  development.  The 
soft  greenish  stone  of  Copan  seems  to  be  a  solidified  mud 
flowr  permeated  with  volcanic  ash  rather  than  a  true 
lava  flow  of  melted  rock.  Limestones  are  also  common 
and  important  in  the  economic  development.  In  some 
regions  there  are  beds  of  a  hard,  blue  limestone  going 
back  to  the  Carboniferous  epoch.  This  stone  makes  an 
excellent  cement  after  burning.  The  Peninsula  of 
Yucatan  is  a  great  plain  of  limestone  of  much  more 
recent  formation.  Like  our  own  Florida  it  was  once  a 
coral  reef  which  was  lifted  above  the  sea  by  some 
natural  agency.  This  limestone  gets  older  and  more 
solid  as  we  approach  the  base  of  the  peninsula  but  at 
best  is  rather  porous  and  coarse-grained. 

The  fauna  and  flora  present  great  variation.  In  the 
moist  lowlands  the  monkeys  play  in  the  tree  tops  and 
the  jaguar  lies  in  wait  for  its  prey.  Alligators  and 
crocodiles  infest  the  rivers  and  swamps.  Two  small 
species  of  deer  and  the  ocellated  turkey  are  important 
items  in  the  meat  supply  of  Yucatan,  that  includes  also 
the  iguana,  the  peccary,  and  various  large  rodents.  The 
tapir  and  manatee  are  the  largest  animals  of  the  low- 
lands but  neither  seems  to  have  been  of  great  signifi- 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


Fig.  3.  Yucatan  Deer 
caught  in -a  Snare.  From 
the  Mayan  Codex,  Tro- 
Cortesianus. 


cance  to  the  natives.     Bats  are  frequently  represented 

in  the  ancient  art  and  a  bat  demon  appears  in  several 

myths. 

Upon  the  highlands  of  Mexico  the  Toltecan  deer  is 

still  hunted,  together  with  the  wild  turkey,  that  is  the 

parent  of  our  domestic  birds. 
The  turkey  was,  in  fact,  domes- 
ticated by  the  Mexican  tribes. 
It  probably  occurred  southward 
over  the  Guatemalan  highlands 
but  is  now  extinct  in  this  latter 
region.  In  the  southern  part  of 
Central  America  the  place  of  the 
turkey  as  an  item  of  diet  is  taken 
by  the  curassow,  a  yellow-crested 

bird  with  black  plumage.     The  coppery-tailed  trogon, 

the  famous  quetzal,  was  sacred  in  ancient  times  and 

is  now   the  emblem   of   Guate- 
mala.    This  beautiful  bird  occurs 

only  in  the  cloud  cap  forest  zone 

on  the  high  mountains  of  south- 
ern   Mexico     and     Guatemala. 

Blue  macaws,  parrots,  paroquets, 

and  humming  birds  contributed 

their  gay  plumage  to  adorn  head- 

dresses     and    feather-covered 

cloaks.      These  and  many  other 

birds  doubtless  flitted  about  in 

the  aviary  of  Moctezuma.      The 

black  vulture,  the  king  vulture 

and   the   harpy  eagle  are  other 

conspicuous  birds   often  figured 

in  the  ancient  art.     The  coyote,  ocelot,  and  puma  are 

the  principal  beasts  of  prey  on  the  highlands. 

Among  the  characteristic  trees  of  the  lowlands  may 


Fig.  4.  The  Moan 
Bird,  or  Yucatan  Owl, 
personified  as  a  Demi- 
god. Dresden  Codex. 


INTRODUCTION  21 

be  mentioned  the  palm,  which  occurs  in  great  variety, 
the  amate  and  ceiba,  both  of  which  attain  to  large  size, 
as  well  as  mahogany,  Spanish  cedar  (which  is  not  a 
cedar  at  all  but  a  close  relative  of  the  mahogany) ,  cam- 
peche,  or  logwood,  rosewood,  sapodilla,  and  other  trees 
of  commerce.  Upon  the  higher  mountain  slopes  are 
forests  of  long-leaf  pine  and  of  oak.  In  the  desert 
stretches  the  cactus  is  often  tree-like  and  there  are 
many  shrubs  that  in  the  brief  spring  become  masses  of 
highly  colored  blossoms. 

Some  of  the  principal  crops  of  Mexico  and  Central 
America  have  been  introduced  from  the  Old  World, 
including  coffee,  sugar  cane,  and  bananas.  Other  crops 
such  as  maize,  beans,  chili  peppers,  cocoa,  etc.,  are 
indigenous.  Among  the  native  fruits  may  be  men- 
tioned the  aguacate,  or  alligator  pear,  the  mamey,  the 
anona,  or  custard  apple,  the  guanabina,  jocote,  and 
nanse. 

History  of  European  Contact.  The  great  area 
with  which  we  are  concerned  has  been  in  touch  with 
Europe  since  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Columbus  on  his  last  voyage  in  1502  cast  anchor  at  the 
mouth  of  the  San  Juan  River,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Nica- 
ragua. Later  he  skirted  the  shore  of  Costa  Rica  and 
Panama  and  entered  the  body  of  water  which  was 
named  in  his  honor  Bahia  del  Almirante — Bay  of  the 
Admiral.  He  brought  back  sensational  news  of  the 
gold  in  possession  of  the  natives,  which  they  had  told 
him  came  from  a  district  called  Veragua.  After  a  few 
years  of  stormy  warfare  the  Spaniards  established  them- 
selves firmly  in  this  golden  land.  Vasco  Nunez  de  Bal- 
boa, who  emerged  from  the  bickering  mob  as  the  strong- 
est leader,  was  the  first  white  man  to  cross  the  Isthmus. 
This  he  did  in  1513,  grandiloquently  laying  claim  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean  and  all  the  shores  that  it  touched  in  the 


22 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


name  of  Spain.  The  crown  appointed  the  greedy  and 
black-hearted  Pedrarias  Davila  governor  of  Darien  and 
in  1517  he  succeeded  in  having  Balboa  beheaded  on  a 
flimsy  charge.  Colonization  and  exploration  went  for- 
ward rapidly.  In  1519  the  old  city  of  Panama,  now  in 
ruins,  was  founded.  The  rich  region  around  the  Nica- 
raguan  lakes  was  discovered  by  Gil  Gonzales  Davila  and 
the  city  of  Granada  was  founded  in  1524.  The  explora- 
tion from  the  southern  base  came  in  contact  with 
that  from  the  north  in  Salvador  shortly  after  this 
event. 

Let  us  now  direct  our  attention  to  the  conquest  of 
Mexico.  Perhaps  the  Portuguese  were  the  first  to  sight 
the  mainland  of  Yucatan  in  1493.  There  is  little  to 
prove  this  except  one  or  two  charts  or  maps  made  in  the 
first  decade  of  the  sixteenth  century 
that  show  the  peninsula  in  its  prop- 
er location.  In  1511  or  1512^  ship 
from  Darien  was  wreckeoTand  some 
of  the  sailors  were  cast  upon  the 
coast  of  Yucatan .  Most  were  killed 
and  sacrificed  but  two  survived. 
One  of  these  survivors  was  Geron- 
imo  de  Aguilar,  who  later  was 
rescued  by  Cortez  and  became  his 
guide  and  interpreter. 

The  first  accredited  voyage  of  discovery  to  Mexico 
was  one  under  the  command  of  Francisco  Hernandez  de 
Cordoba,  which  sailed  from  Cuba  in  February,  1517.  He 
coasted  the  northern  and  eastern  shores  of  Yucatan. 
When  he  attempted  to  obtain  water  he  was  worsted  in  a 
serious  battle  with  the  Maya  Indians.  His  expedition 
finally  returned  to  Cuba  in  a  sad  plight.  The  next  year 
Juan  de  Grijalva  set  out  to  continue  the  exploration  of 
the  new  land  with  the  stone  built  cities.  He  landed  at 


Fig.  5.  Spanish 
Ship  in  the  Aubin 
Codex. 


Plate  II.  (a)  Site  of  Pueblo  VieJ9,  the  First  Capital  of  Guate- 
mala; (6)  A  Spanish  Church  at  the  village  of  Camotan  on  the  Road 
to  Copan. 

23 


24  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

Cozumel  Island  and  took  possession.  He  explored  the 
eastern  coast  of  Yucatan  as  well  as  the  northern  and 
western  ones,  discovered  the  mouth  of  the  large  river 
that  bears  his  name,  and  proceeded  as  far  as  the  Island 
of  Sacrifices  in  the  harbor  of  Vera  Cruz. 

The  next  year  Hernando  Cortez  was  sent  out  by 
Velasquez,  the  governor  of  Cuba,  to  conquer  the  new 
land.  He  landed  at  Cozumel  Island  and  rescued  Ge- 
ronimo  de  Aguilar.  Then  he  followed  the  coast  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Grijalva  River  where  he  disembarked  and 
fought  the  important  battle  of  Cintla,  the  first  engage- 
ment in  the  New  World  in  which  cavalry  was  used. 
After  a  signal  victory  Cortez  continued  his  way  to  Vera 
Cruz.  Here  delay  and  dissension  seemed  about  to 
break  the  luck  of  the  invaders. 

Although  the  Mexicans  were  somewhat  inclined  to 
regard  the  Spaniards  as  supernatural  visitants  and  to 
associate  their  coming  with  the  fabled  return  of  Quet- 
zalcoatl,  the  Plumed  Serpent,  still  Moctezuma  refused 
to  grant  an  interview  to  Cortez.  The  Totonacan  city  of 
Cempoalan  opened  its  gates  and  became  allies  of  the 
invaders.  Finally,  at  the  instigation  of  their  stout- 
hearted captain,  the  Spaniards  destroyed  their  ships  on 
the  shore  in  order  to  steel  their  resolution  through  the 
impossibility  of  retreat.  Then  the  little  band  of  450 
white  men  with  their  retinue  of  natives  marched  towards 
the  highlands.  The  route  led  past  Jalapa  and  over  the 
mountains  to  the  fortified  city  of  Tlascala.  This  city 
after  a  skirmish  likewise  enlisted  in  the  Spanish  cause, 
a  course  that  came  easy  because  Tlascala  was  a  tra- 
ditional enemy  of  Tenochtitlan,  the  ancient  Mexico 
City,  and  had  withstood  the  attacks  of  the  Aztecs  for 
many  years.  From  here  Cortez  passed  to  the  sacred 
city  of  Cholula  where,  suspecting  treachery,  he  caused 
many  of  the  inhabitants  to  be  massacred. 


INTRODUCTION 


Fig.  6.  Cortez  arrives  with 
Sword  and  Cross  and  Mocte- 
zuma  brings  him  Gold.  Codex 
Vaticanus  3738. 


In  the  Spanish  histories  one  hears  much  concerning 
the  omens,  the  prophecies,  and  the  vain  appeals  to  the 
gods  that  became  more  and  more  frequent  and  frantic 

as  the  invaders  approached 
the  capital.  Arriving  at 
Ixtapalapan  they  entered 
upon  the  great  causeway 
leading  out  to  the  Venice- 
like  city  in  thexlake.  Ac- 
cepting the  inevitable, 
Moctezuma  and  his  nobles 
met  the  Spaniards  and  con- 
ducted them  to  the  Palace 
of  Axayacatl,  which  was 
prepared  for  their  habita- 
tion. This  took  place  in 
November,  1519.  The  fears  of  Moctezuma  were  soon 
fulfilled,  for  he  was  taken  prisoner  and  held  as  a  hostage 
of  safety  in  his  own  capital. 

Meanwhile  Velasquez,  convinced  of  the  unfaithful- 
ness of  Cortez,  dispatched  Narvaez  to  capture  the 
rebellious  agent.  But  Narvaez  was  himself  captured 
and  his  soldiers  went  to  augment  the  army  of  the  victor. 
Alvarado  had  been  left  in  command  of  the  garrison  at 
Tenochtitlan  during  the  absence  of  Cortez.  The  time 
approached  for  the  great  feast  of  Tezcatlipoca  and  the 
Spaniards,  fearing  the  results  of  this  appeal  to  the 
principal  Aztecan  god,  resolved  to  be  the  first  to  strike. 
The  multitude  assembled  in  the  temple  enclosure  was 
massacred  and  after  this  deed  the  soldiers  fought  their 
way  back  to  the  stronghold  in  which  they  were  quar- 
tered. The  Aztecs  were  thoroughly  aroused  by  this 
unwarranted  cruelty  as  well  as  by  the  cupidity  of  the 
Spaniards.  Cortez  hastened  back  to  take  personal 
charge  but  in  spite  of  victories  in  the  storming  of  the 


20  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

pyramids  and  in  other  hand-to-hand  contests,  the  in- 
vaders were  so  weakened  that  their  condition  was  truly 
alarming.  Moctezuma  died  in  captivity  and  the  last 
restraint  of  the  natives  was  removed. 

The  night  of  June  30,  1520,  is  famous  as  La  Noche 
Triste — The  Sad  Night — for  on  this  night  the  Spaniards 
attempted  to  steal  out  of  the  city  that  had  become 
untenable.  The  natives  were  warned  by  a  woman's 
shriek  and  a  desperate  encounter  took  place  on  the  nar- 


Fig.  7.     Ancient  Aztecan  Canoe.     Lienzo  de  Tezcoco. 


row  causeway  leading  to  Tlacopan.  The  bridges  were 
torn  down  and  the  Spanish  soldiers  in  armor  were 
hemmed  in  between  the  deep  canals.  At  last,  however, 
the  firm  land  was  reached.  Here,  instead  of  following 
up  the  victory,  the  natives  permitted  the  Spaniards  to 
re-form  their  ranks.  A  few  days  later  Cortez  was  able 
to  restore  something  of  his  lost  prestige  by  the  decisive 
victory  at  Otumba,  after  which  he  continued  his  retreat 
to  the  friendly  Tlascala. 


INTRODUCTION  27 

A  year  was  spent  in  recuperation,  'n  building  boats 
for  an  attack  from  the  lake,  and  in  putting  down  the 
Aztecan  outposts.  Finally  Tenochtitlan  was  besieged 
again.  The  buildings  were  leveled  with  the  ground  as 
the  Spaniards  advanced.  The  brave  defense  of 
Cuauhtemoc  availed  for  naught  against  cannon  and 
steel  armor.  On  the  13th  of  August,  1521,  the  con- 
quest of  Tenochtitlan  was  achieved  and  the  spirit  of  a 
warlike  people  forever  broken. 

The  Valley  of  Mexico  having  been  taken,  numerous 
expeditions  were  sent  out  to  subdue  the  more  distant 
provinces  and  to  establish  colonies.  Alvarado  invaded 
the  south  and  by  1524  he  had  captured  Utatlan  and 
other  native  strongholds  on  the  highlands  of  Guate- 
mala and  had  invaded  Salvador.  Cortez  himself  under- 
took a  wonderful  march  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  Gulf 
of  Honduras  to  punish  an  unruly  subordinate.  His 
course  lay  through  the  swamps  and  jungles  of  the 
Usumacinta  basin,  thence  across  the  savannahs  of 
southern  Yucatan  to  Lake  Peten,  and,  finally,  over  the 
mountains  to  Lake  Izabal  and  the  Motagua  River. 
Even  today  much  of  his  route  would  be  called  impass- 
able for  an  army.  Puerto  Cortez,  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Honduras,  was  founded  at  the  conclusion  of  this 
expedition.  The  exploitation  of  Yucatan  and  Tabasco 
was  granted  to  Francisco  Monte  jo,  who  began  the  con- 
quest of  this  lowlying  territory  in  1527.  Soon  after 
entering  the  country  he  won  a  costly  victory  at  Ake  and 
later  made  his  quarters  at  Chichen  Itza.  But  the  odds 
were  too  great  and  by  1535  all  the  Spaniards  had  been 
killed  or  expelled.  The  son  of  Monte  jo  renewed  the 
struggle.  In  1540  Campeche  was  founded  and  early 
in  1542  the  city  of  Merida  was  established  upon  the  site 
of  an  earlier  Mayan  town. 

Progress  was  also  rapid  in  the  north.     Nuno  de  Guz- 


' 


[a] 


Plate  III.  (a)  View  of  the  Island  Town  of  Flores  in  Lake  Peten 
where  the  Last  Capital  of  the  Itzas  was  located;  (6)  The  Sacred 
Cenote  at  Chichen  Itza  into  which  Human  Beings  were  thrown  as 
Sacrifices. 

28 


INTRODUCTION  29 

man  departed  in  1529  on  a  mission  to  conquer  Michoa- 
can  and  the  great  northern  province  known  as  New 
Galicia.  His  rule  was  marred  by  many  acts  of  cruelty. 
In  1538  Coronado,  the  successor  of  Guzman,  led  his 
army  northward  to  the  land  of  the  Pueblo  Indians  and 
then  out  into  the  Great  Plains.  Before  the  first  Eng- 
lish settlement  was  made  in  North  America  the  power 
of  Spain  was  firmly  established,  not  only  throughout 
Central  America  and  Mexico,  but  also  in  the  south- 
western part  of  the  United  States. 

/The  spiritual  conquest  was  no  less  remarkable  than 
the  territorial.  The  priests  accompanied  and  even 
preceded  the  armies  with  the  doctrine  of  the  cross.  The 
rough  and  ready  characters  that  enliven  the  wonderful 
drama  of  this  period  had  the  vices  of  greed  and  cruelty, 
but  nearly  all  were  imbued  with  a  pride  of  religion,  if  not 
with  the  true  flame.  The  firmness  and  bigotry  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  open  sympathy  on  the  other  with 
which  the  Catholic  fathers  met  the  practical  problems 
before  them  resulted  in  vast  achievements.  Either  by 
accident  or  design  certain  patron  saints  and  efficacious 
shrines  of  special  interest  to  the  natives  were  not  long  in 
becoming  known.  The  Virgin  of  Guadeloupe  and  the 
Black  Christ  of  Esquipulas  brought  many  converts  to 
the  foreign  faith.  Church  building  was  carried  on 
apace.  The  various  religious  orders  became  rich  and 
powerful  and  exerted  a  strong  influence  upon  civil 
administration?/ 

The  later  history  of  this  great  region  can  be  passed 
over  briefly.  Cortez  was  the  first  governor  general  of 
Mexico  but  he  was  soon  shorn  of  his  power  as  dictator 
at  large.  The  First  Audiencia  was  appointed  in  1528 
and  is  noteworthy  simply  by  reason  of  its  misrule.  The 
Second  Audiencia,  beginning  two  years  later,  put 
through  some  excellent  reform  laws.  The  first  Viceroy, 


30  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

the  great  and  good  Mendoza,  arrived  in  1535  and  for 
fifteen  years  the  land  prospered  under  his  rule,  which  was 
benign  without  being  weak.  He  was  succeeded  by  Luis 
de  Velasco,  who  emancipated  many  of  the  enslaved 
Indians.  The  long  line  of  viceroys  continued  until  1821 
when  Spain  was  forced  to  relinquish  her  provinces  in 
America.  Among  the  greatest  of  the  viceroys  was 
Bucareli,  the  forty-sixth  in  line,  who  ruled  Mexico  from 
1771-1779  while  the  United  States  of  America  were  just 
beginning  to  feel  the  pulse  of  life. 

During  the  viceregal  period  in  Mexico  the  region  to 
the  south  was  ruled  by  the  captain  general  of  Guate- 
mala. The  dominion  was  subdivided  into  five  depart- 
ments corresponding  to  the  modern  republics  of  Guate- 
mala (which  then  included  the  Mexican  state  of  Chi- 
apas), Honduras,  Salvador,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica. 
Panama  was  ruled  from  the  South  American  province 
of  New  Granada. 

Weakened  by  Napoleonic  wars  and  rent  by  internal 
dissensions,  Spain  found  herself  in  the  first  two  decades 
of  the  nineteenth  century  unable  to  maintain  her  wan- 
ing power  in  America.  Bolivar  and  his  brother  patriots 
raised  the  standard  of  revolt  in  South  America  in  1810 
and  in  the  same  year  war  for  independence  broke  out  in 
the  north.  Hidalgo,  the  parish  priest  of  Dolores,  rang 
the  liberty  bell  of  Mexican  freedom  on  the  16th  of 
September,  1810.  This  beloved  patriot  was  captured 
the  year  following,  and  shot,  but  the  revolution  once 
begun  was  continued  under  Morelos  and  other  leaders. 
After  1815  the  cause  seemed  hopeless,  but  in  1820  there 
was  a  new  uprising  and  General  Iturbide,  who  was  sent 
to  put  it  down,  turned  his  army  against  the  government 
and  established  himself  as  emperor.  Central  America 
was  also  included  in  this  Mexican  empire.  The  rule  of 
Iturbide  soon  became  unpopular  and  in  1823  he  abdi- 


INTRODUCTION  31 

cated  his  throne.  The  Mexican  republic  that  was  then 
instituted  continued  until  the  French  intervention  in 
1861.  During  this  time  the  most  noteworthy  events 
were  the  war  with  the  United  States  in  1846-47  and  the 
passing  of  the  reform  laws  under  Benito  Jaurez  that 
freed  Mexico  from  the  oppressions  of  the  church. 

As  a  result  of  the  French  intervention  Maximilian  of 
Austria  was  made  emperor.  This  unfortunate  ruler, 
who  did  much  to  beautify  Mexico  City,  was  dethroned 
and  shot  in  1867.  The  republic  was  then  re-established. 

The  other  republics  of  Central  America  formed  a 
federal  union  at  the  time  the  first  Mexican  empire  came 
to  an  end  in  1823.  This  union  was  preserved  till  1839 
and  several  later  attempts  were  made  to  restore  it.  The 
five  republics  have  had  such  tempestuous  careers  as  a 
result  of  warfare,  usurpation,  and  political  brigandage 
that  their  material  and  social  development  has  been 
stunted.  Costa  Rica  is,  however,  on  the  high  road  to 
stability. 

Panama  was  until  1903  a  part  of  Colombia.  British 
Honduras  had  its  origin  in  the  concessions  given  to 
English  logwood  gatherers  and  to  the  fact  that  pirates 
found  refuge  behind  the  coral  reefs  that  line  the  shores. 
The  English  claim  to  the  Mosquito  Coast  rested  upon  a 
similar  flimsy  basis,  and  was  finally  abandoned. 

Languages.  About  thirty  distinct  groups  of  re- 
lated languages,  technically  known  as  linguistic  stocks, 
were  found  in  Mexico  and  Central  America.  Some  of 
these  stocks  occupied  small  areas  and  showed  little  in 
the  way  of  word  variation.  A  few  stocks  were  stretched 
over  wide  territories  and  were  divided  into  many  mutu- 
ally unintelligible  tongues,  which  in  turn  were  sub- 
divided into  well-defined  dialects.  Several  entire  stocks 
are  now  extinct  and  others  are  rapidly  approaching 
extinction  through  the  substitution  of  Spanish.  A 


32  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

number   of   languages,   however,   are   still   spoken   by 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  natives. 

The  linguistic  stock  having  the  greatest  geographical 
extension  within  the  area  under  consideration  is  the 
Nahuan,  with  which  has  recently  been  consolidated  the 
great  Shoshonean  group  of  languages.  This  stock  may 
be  compared  to  the  Indo-Iranian  stock  of  the  Old  World, 
which  comprises  most  of  the  modern  and  ancient  lan- 
guages of  Europe  as  well  as  those  of  a  large  part  of  Asia. 
Within  the  United  States  are  the  numerous  Shoshonean 
tribes  extending  as  far  north  as  Idaho.  In  southern 
Arizona  and  northwestern  Mexico  is  the  Piman  group 
of  languages  that  also  belongs  to  the  Nahuan  stock. 
East  of  the  Sierra  Madre  are  the  Tarahumare  and 
the  Tepehuane.  These  languages  are  mutually  unin- 
telligible and  all  are  subdivided  into  dialects.  The 
general  relationship  is  proved  only  through  laborious 
comparison  and  analysis  of  the  words  and  grammar, 
in  the  same  way  as  the  philologist  proves  that  Persian, 
Greek,  Russian,  English,  and  Welsh  are  all  related 
tongues.  Farther  to  the  south  are  still  other  divisions 
of  the  Nahuan  stock,  including  the  Huichol  and  Cora 
of  the  mountainous  region  north  of  Guadalajara  and 
the  Mexican  or  Aztecan  of  the  valley  of  Mexico  and 
adjacent  country.  The  Mexican  language  is  still 
spoken  by  a  million  or  more  natives  and  is  divided  into 
a  number  of  dialects.  Properly  the  Aztecs  are  a  single 
tribe  whose  chief  city  was  Tenochtitlan,  the  ancient 
Mexico  City.  Mexican  colonies  were  widespread  be- 
fore the  coming  of  the  Spaniards  and  during  the  Con- 
quest the  distribution  of  this  nation  was  made  still 
greater.  The  Mexicans,  and  especially  the  natives  of 
Tlascala,  accompanied  the  Spaniards  on  military  expe- 
ditions against  other  tribes  and  as  a  consequence  many 
place  names  in  southern  Mexico  and  Guatemala  were 


INTRODUCTION  33 

translated  into  the  Mexican  language.  There  were, 
however,  large  groups  of  Indians  of  the  Nahuan  stock 
already  located  in  this  territory.  The  Pipiles  were 
given  their  name,  which  means  "boys,"  because  their 
speech  was  somewhat  different  from  classical  Mexican. 
They  were  situated  in  southern  Guatemala  and  in 
Salvador.  Still  farther  south  were  the  Niquirao  of 
Nicaragua  and  a  little-known  group  called  the  Sigua  in 
Costa  Rica. 

The  wide  geographical  distribution  of  Nahuan  lan- 
guages has  an  undeniable  historical  significance.  The 
numerous  tribes  represent  a  very  wide  range  in  culture 
albeit  nearly  all  are  dwellers  of  arid  or  semi-arid  regions. 
Some  like  the  Paiute  are  miserable  "diggers"  willing  to 
eat  anything  that  will  support  life;  others  like  the 
Comanche  are  warlike  raiders;  more  progressive  tribes 
like  the  Hopi  have  adopted  agriculture  and  developed 
interesting  arts  and  customs;  while  the  highest  members 
of  the  group  are  among  the  most  civilized  nations  of  the 
New  World.  It  seems  clear  that  language  as  a  basis  of 
classification  extends  over  a  much  greater  stretch  of 
time  than  does  culture.  Particular  phases  of  art, 
religion,  and  government  develop  and  disappear,  but 
the  grouping  of  sounds  used  to  express  ideas  remains  as 
proof  that  peoples  now  far  apart  geographically  as  well 
as  in  their  habits  and  achievements  were  once  close 
together.  The  peculiar  grouping,  in  this  instance,  may 
indicate  a  general  southward  movement. 

The  second  most  important  group  of  languages  is  the 
Mayan,  now  spoken  by  over  half  a  million  people. 
This  stock  has  only  one  outlying  member,  namely,  the 
Huasteca  of  northern  Vera  Cruz.  The  other  twenty- 
one  languages  cover  a  continuous  area  in  the  Mexican 
states  of  Yucatan,  Tabasco,  and  Chiapas  and  in  the 
republic  of  Guatemala.  The  most  important  language 


34  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

of  the  group  is  the  Maya  proper,  which  is  spoken  by  the 
natives  of  Yucatan  and  by  the  Lacandone  Indians  of  the 
Usumacinta  Valley.  The  Quiche,  Cakchiquel,  Choi, 
and  Chorti  are  other  prominent  languages. 

In  the  region  of  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  are  the 
Zapotecan  and  Zoquean  stocks,  which  differ  widely  in 
sound  and  structure  from  the  Mayan  and  Nahuan 
tongues  that  hem  them  in.  West,  north,  and  east  of 
the  Valley  of  Mexico  are,  respectively,  the  Tarascan, 
Otomian,  and  Totonacan  stocks,  which  show  no  great 
amount  of  subdivision.  In  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and 
Costa  Rica  are  several  language  groups  that  have  never 
been  carefully  studied.  It  seems  likely  that  some  of 
these  will  be  consolidated  when  words  and  grammatical 
structures  are  better  known.  The  Chiapanecan  lan- 
guages, now  practically  extinct,  were  spoken  in  three 
localities  on  the  Pacific  side  of  Nicaragua  and  Costa 
Rica,  while  a  fourth  division  occupied  a  small  area  far 
to  the  northwest  on  the  banks  of  the  Chiapas  River. 
Parts  of  the  Isthmian  region  were  held  by  tribes  having 
linguistic  affiliation  with  South  America.  It  is  not 
unlikely  that  a  considerable  back  flow  from  South 
America  made  itself  felt  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
Central  America,  if  we  may  judge  by  ethnological 
features  and  by  suggested  language  connections. 

Ethnology.  To  a  less  extent  than  the  native  lan- 
guages the  old-time  customs  still  hold  out  against  the 
tide  of  European  influence.  In  regions  not  easily 
accessible  on  account  of  deserts,  mountains,  or  tropical 
jungles,  there  are  a  number  of  groups  of  Indians  that 
preserve  in  a  large  measure  their  ancient  arts  and  ideas. 
Unfortunately  the  study  of  these  remnants  has  not  been 
very  thorough. 

The  Pima,  Seri,  Tarahumare,  Tepehuane,  and  other 


INTRODUCTION 


35 


tribes  of  the  extreme  north  and  northwest  of  Mexico 
have  until  recent  times  been  comparatively  unmodified 
by  Spanish  influences.  Basketry,  textiles,  and  pottery 


Fig.  8.     Design  on  Modern  Huichol  Ribbon. 


Fig.  9.     Woven  Pouch  of  the  Huichol  Indians  showing 
Two-Headed  Austrian  Eagle. 

have  been  maintained  by  them  as  well  as  many  religious 
ceremonies.  Farther  south  among  the  Cora  and 
Huichol  there  is  also  considerable  purity  in  this  regard. 
The  woven  fabrics  of  these  Indians  are  very  beautiful 


36  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

but  introduced  ideas  are  frequently  seen.  For  instance, 
a  very  common  motive  in  Huichol  textile  art  is  the  two- 
headed  Austrian  eagle  evidently  taken  from  the  coins 
of  Charles  V.  Crowns  similar  to  those  worn  by  the  two- 
headed  eagle  are  often  shown  on  the  heads  of  rampant 
animals.  But  the  greater  number  of  the  motives  are 
doubtless  of  native  origin. 

Among  the  Huichol  and  Tarahumare  the  curious 
peyote,  or  hikule  worship  may  be  studied.  A  small 
variety  of  cactus  is  eaten,  which  induces  ecstasy  or 
stupor  accompanied  by  color  visions  and  peculiar 
dreams.  Associated  with  the  eating  and  gathering  of 
this  plant  there  are  elaborate  ceremonies.  The  religious 
cult  of  the  peyote  has  swept  over  a  large  portion  of  the 
Great  Plains  Area  of  the  United  States  and  is  known 
even  to  Indians  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Great  Lakes. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  narcotic  action  of  the 
peyote  was  known  to  the  Aztecs,  who  made  a  ceremo- 
nial use  of  it  under  the  name  teonanacatl.  An  intoxi- 
cating drink  called  teswin  is  commonly  made  in  .north- 
ern Mexico  from  the  heart  of  the  mescal  plant.  It  takes 
the  place  of  the  famous  pulque,  the  ancient  beverage 
of  the  Mexican  highlands.  Hunting  dances  in  which  are 
employed  regalia  and  ceremonial  objects  of  great  inter- 
est occur  among  the  Huichol  and  neighboring  tribes. 
The  so-called  "god's  eyes"  made  of  yarn  strung  spider- 
web  fashion  over  crossed  sticks  are  practically  identical 
with  the  "squash  blossoms"  of  the  Pueblo  Indians. 
There  are  also  real  temple  structures,  or  "god  houses," 
which  are  very  significant  when  we  consider  the  former 
importance;  of  the  temple  among  the  more  highly  civi- 
lized peoples  to  the  south.  In  these  and  other  respects 
the  Huichol  culture  is  about  midway  between  the  cul- 
ture of  the  Southwestern  Pueblo  tribes  and  that  which 
formerly  existed  in  central  Mexico. 


INTRODUCTION  37 

Elsewhere  in  northern  and  central  Mexico  it  is 
possible  to  find  many  suggestions  of  ancient  Indian 
ways  of  living.  In  nearly  all  the  outlying  villages  the 
old-time  thatched  huts  are  still  used,  while  baskets, 
gourd  vessels,  wooden  bowls,  earthen  pots,  and  other 
household  objects  hark  back  to  native  origins  although 
often  modified  by  European  contact.  For  instance, 
glazing  is  commonly  seen  on  the  modern  pottery. 
Many  travelers  in  Mexico  bring  away  as  souvenirs 
pieces  of  pottery  from  Guadalajara  and  Cuernavaca. 
These  wares  are  made  by  Indians,  but  in  decoration 
they  have  only  slight  traces  of  the  ancient  art  of  the 
Mexicans. 

In  dress  there  are  noteworthy  survivals.  The  pon- 
cho and  serape  made  either  on  the  narrow  hand  loom 
or  on  a  crude  form  of  the  Spanish  tread  loom  are  pic- 
turesque elements  in  the  national  dress  that  are  rapidly 
disappearing  from  view.  Time  was  when  the  rich 
plantation  owner  wore  a  gayly  colored  blanket  on 
fiesta  days.  The  most  famous  centers  for  the  manu- 
facture and  sale  of  blankets  were  the  cities  of  Saltillo 
and  San  Miguel.  The  Saltillo  pattern  shows  a  medal- 
lion consisting  of  concentric  diamonds  in  various  colors 
upon  an  all-over  design  in  stripes.  The  motives  are 
minute  geometric  figures  skilfully  interlocked.  The 
colors  are  rich  and  permanent  and  are  combined  in  a 
very  pleasing  manner.  Saltillo  blankets  must  be  classed 
among  the  finest  textile  products  of  the  world.  The 
best  period  was  before  1850.  San  Miguel  blankets 
show  characteristically  a  rosette  instead  of  a  diamond 
in  the  center.  Many  beautiful  blankets  come  from 
other  localities  in  Mexico.  The  Chimayo  blankets  have 
the  same  part  Indian,  part  Spanish  origin  and  are  made 
by  the  Spanish-speaking  natives  in  the  mountain  val- 
leys of  New  Mexico. 


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Plate  IV.  (a)  A  Guatemala  huipili  decorated  with  Highly  Con- 
ventionalized Animals  in  Embroidery;  (6)  Pouches  of  the  Valiente 
Indians  of  the  Chiriqui  Lagoon,  Panama. 

38 


INTRODUCTION  39 

In  southern  Mexico  there  are  many  towns  of  Indians 
where  the  women  still  wear  the  finely  embroidered 
huipili.  This  old-time  garment  varies  considerably  in 
different  towns  but  as  a  rule  it  is  a  simple  sack-like  gown 
cut  square  at  the  neck  and  with  short  sleeves.  Some- 
times it  is  shortened  to  a  blouse,  and  is  worn  with  a 
skirt ;  at  other  times  a  short  huipili  is  worn  over  a  longer 
one.  An  easily  visited  town  where  the  natives  still 
wear  the  old-time  dress  is  Amatlan,  within  an  hour's 
walk  of  Cordova.  The  women  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Tehuantepec  have  a  gorgeous  costume  of  which  the 
most  remarkable  feature  is  a  wide  ruff  worn  around  the 
neck  or  on  the  back  of  the  head.  The  Mayan  women 
of  Yucatan  wear  white  huipili  with  needlework  in  color 
around  the  bottom.  On  the  highlands  of  Guatemala 
the  huipili  is  usually  a  blouse.  The  skirt  sometimes 
consists  of  a  strip  of  cloth  wrapped  several  times  around 
the  body. 

The  Lacandone  Indians  live  in  the  marshy  jungles 
that  border  the  winding  Usumacinta.  They  speak  the 
same  tongue  as  the  Maya  Indians  of  Yucatan  but  in  the 
matter  of  culture  they  have  acquired  little  from  the 
Spaniards.  They  still  weave  simple  garments  and  make 
pottery  vessels.  In  hunting  they  use  the  bow  and 
arrow,  the  latter  usually  tipped  with  a  point  of  stone. 
In  their  religious  practices  they  use  incense  burners 
which  are  comparable  to  those  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  Caribs  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the  north  coast 
of  Guatemala  and  Honduras,  running  east  from  the  port 
of  Livingston  on  the  Gulf  of  Amatique.  These  people, 
originally  of  South  America  and  later  of  the  West  Indies 
as  well,  were  deported  by  the  English  from  the  Island 
of  St.  Vincent  in  1796.  They  have  now  established 
themselves  in  the  new  land  where  they  raise  the  manioc 
or  cassava  root  and  press  out  the  poisonous  juice  in  a 


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INTRODUCTION  41 

basketry  tube  as  do  their  kindred  in  the  Orinoco  Val- 
ley. Long  before  the  forcible  immigration  it  is  likely 
that  the  Caribs,  who  were  cannibalistic  in  habit,  had 
raided  the  shores  of  Central  America  in  their  seagoing 
canoes.  A  significant  passage  in  the  chronicles  of  the 
Mayas  states  that  naked  man-eating  savages  visited 
Yucatan  long  before  the  coining  of  the  Spaniards. 

The  Mosquito  Indians  of  the  east  coast  of  Nicaragua 
have  a  very  considerable  negro  admixture.  They  are 
fishermen  of  low  culture.  It  has  recently  been  possible 
to  connect  the  original  Indian  stock  of  this  unhealthy 
coast  with  other  tribes  who  live  farther  inland.  The 
interior  tribes  of  eastern  Honduras  and  Nicaragua  re- 
tain a  great  deal  of  their  old-time  culture  but  they  have 
been  seldom  visited  or  described.  Large  communal 
houses  are  constructed  in  some  parts  of  this  region.  The 
bow  and  arrow  is  still  skilfully  used  in  killing  game. 
The  authority  of  the  government  does  not  make  itself 
felt  among  these  wild  and  primitive  Indians  although 
many  acknowledge  outwardly  the  Catholic  faith. 

In  the  narrow  Isthmian  region  there  are  tribes  of 
Indians  that  resist  manfully  the  inroads  of  civilization. 
Perhaps  the  best  known  of  these  are  the  San  Bias 
Indians  who  inhabit  the  mountain  fastnesses  east  of 
the  Canal  Zone.  In  northern  Costa  Rica  the  Guatuso 
and  Talamanca  tribes  still  maintain  to  a  considerable 
degree  their  old  native  character. 

Physical  Types.  Minor  physical  differences  in 
stature,  head  form,  and  facial  expression  mark  off  pretty 
clearly  the  tribes  of  this  area  from  each  other.  The 
stature  is  lowest  among  the  Mayas  and  Mazatecas, 
the  average  being  about  5  feet  1  inch  while  among  the 
Tarascans,  Tlascalas,  and  Zapotecs,  it  averages  about 
5  feet  3  inches.  The  other  tribes  of  Central  America 


42  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

and  of  central  Mexico  fall  between  these  extremes.  In 
northern  Mexico  the  stature  increases  considerably, 
average  measurements  for  the  Yaqui  being  in  excess  of 
5  feet  6  inches.  To  make  up  for  their  lack  of  height 
the  southern  Indians  are  sturdy  and  heavy  muscled, 
with  deep  chests.  Their  hair  is  usually  black  and 
straight,  but  occasionally  wavy.  Light  beards  and 
mustaches  are  sometimes  worn,  especially  by  the  Mayas. 
The  eyes  are  so  dark  brown  as  to  appear  black  to  the 
casual  observer.  They  are  set  rather  Vide  apart  and 
while  usually  horizontal  they  seem,  in  some  instances,  to 
have  a  slight  Mongoloid  tilt.  Noses  vary  greatly  but 
are  often  finely  aquiline.  The  cephalic  index  (obtained 
by  dividing  the  breadth  of  the  head  by  its  length  and 
multiplying  the  result  by  100)  is  rather  high.  The 
Mayas  are  strongly  round-headed  with  an  index  of  85.0 
while  their  linguistic  relatives,  the  Tzendals,  have  a 
medium  index  of  76.8.  The  other  tribes  of  southern 
Mexico  fall  between  these  extremes.  No  long-headed* 
peoples  are  found  in  this  area  although  in  northern 
Mexico  some  tribes  approach  the  long-headed  type. 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  ARCHAIC  HORIZON 

IN  1910  an  actual  stratification  of  human  products 
was  found  in  the  environs  of  Mexico  City  in  which 
three  principal  culture  horizons  could  readily  be  dis- 
cerned. A  collection  made  at  this  time  is  on  exhibition 
in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  In  part 
this  stratification  verified  theories  of  culture  succession 
already  held  by  students  working  in  this  field.  Since 
that  time  careful  research  in  several  localities  has  been 
carried  on  under  the  International  School  of  Archge- 
ology  and  many  authenticated  specimens  from  the  three 
layers  have  been  brought  together.  The  lowest  layer, 
characterized  by  crude  figurines  of  a  peculiar  style,  was 
soon  found  to  correspond  to  an  art  long  known  as 
Tarascan.  This  art  had  been  referred  to  the  Tarascan 
Indians  of  the  state  of  Michoacan,  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  the  most  noteworthy  specimens  came  from 
outside  the  Tarascan  area. 

It  now  seems  likely  that  the  archaic  art  was  the  com- 
mon product  of  all  the  tribes  then  living  on  the  Mexican 
highlands  but  that  the  Nahuan  tribes  led  in  its  develop- 
ment and  dissemination.  It  is  most  common  in  regions 
inhabited  by  the  Nahuan  tribes  and  seems  to  have  been 
carried  southward  by  certain  of  these  tribes  who  mi- 
grated to  Guatemala,  Salvador,  and  Nicaragua.  In 
these  southern  Nahuan  areas  the  archaic  art,  at  least  so 
far  as  the  human  figurines  are  concerned,  is  often  in- 
distinguishable from  that  of  the  north.  Beyond  Nica- 
ragua it  is  possible  to  follow  the  stream  of  this  ancient 
art  well  into  South  America,  but  these  southernmost 
occurrences  are  accompanied  by  changes  in  form  and 
technique. 

43 


44 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


Stratification  of  Remains.  Atzcapotzalco  was 
once  an  important  center  of  the  Tepanecan  tribe  situ- 
ated on  the  shores  of  Lake  Tezcoco.  It  was  an  early 
rival  of  Tenochtitlan,  the  Aztecan 
capital,  and  was  conquered  and  partly 
destroyed  in  1439.  The  principal 
modern  industry  of  Atzcapotzalco  is 
the  making  of  bricks,  and  several 
mounds  and  much  of  the  surface  of 
the  plain  have  been  removed  for  this 
purpose.  In  the  mounds  are  found 
many  pottery  objects  of  the  Toltecan 
period,  while  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground  are  encountered  fragments  of 
the  typical  Aztecan  pottery  in  use 
when  the  Spaniards  arrived. 

The  stratification  of  the  plain 
varies  in  different  places  so  far  as 
the  thickness  of  the  different  strata  is 
concerned,  but  the  order  is  always  the  same.  At  one 
locality  it  is  as  shown  in  Fig.  11.  First  comes  a  layer  of 
fine  soil  of  volcanic  ash  origin,  probably  deposited  by 
the  wind.  This  is  five  or  six  feet  in  thickness,  yellowish 
at  the  top,  and  much  darker  towards  the  bottom,  with 
streaks  and  discolorations.  The  Aztecan  pottery  is 
found  close  to  the  surface,  while  Toltecan  pottery  occurs 
in  the  middle  and  lower  sections.  Underneath  the  soil 
layer  lies  a  thick  stratum  of  water-bearing  gravel  mixed 
with  sand.  This  gravel  stratum  is  possibly  the  old  bed 
of  a  stream  that  formerly  entered  Lake  Tezcoco  near 
this  point.  In  some  places  it  is  fifteen  or  eighteen 
feet  in  thickness.  Scattered  throughout  the  gravel  are 
heavy,  water  worn  fragments  of  pots  as  well  as  more  or 
less  complete  figurines  of  the  archaic  type. 

At  other  sites,  such  as  Colhuacan,  the  Toltecan  layer 


Fig.  10.  Atz- 
capotzalco Des- 
troyed. The  tem- 
ple burns  at  the 
Place  of  the  Ant. 


THE  ARCHAIC  HORIZON 


45 


is  of  greater  thickness  and  the  archaic  layer  of  lesser 
thickness.  The  remains  extend  below  the  present  level 
of  the  water  and  may  indicate  that  considerable  changes 
have  taken  place  in  the  level  of  the  lake.  But  we  must 
remember  that  many  of  the  ancient  settlements  were 


I"fi*>sferJSr«  *£  - ' 


Temple  mounds  of  Tol- 
tecan  period. 


Surf  ace' finds  of  Aztec  an 
period. 


Remains    of    Toltecan 
period. 


Deep  stratum  of  water- 
bearing gravels  contain- 
ing remains  of  archaic 
period. 


Bed  rock  of  hard  clay. 


Fig.  11.     Diagram  of  Culture  Strata  at  Atzcapotzalco. 

built  over  the  water  and  that  land  was  made  in  ancient 
times,  as  it  is  today  in  the  gardens  of  Xochimilco,  by 
deepening  canals.  Archaic  remains  are  also  common  on 
the  denuded  tops  of  hills  which  may  once  have  been 
covered  by  soil. 


46 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


Invention  of  Agriculture.  Before  examining  in 
greater  detail  the  art  of  the  Archaic  Horizon  let  us  stop 
and  consider  its  real  significance.  It  is  generally 
admitted  that  America  was  originally  populated  from 
Asia,  but  on  a  culture  level  no  higher  than  the  Neolithic. 

The  simple  arts  of  stone 
chipping,  basketry,  fire- 
making,  etc.,  were  prob- 
ably brought  over  by  the 
earliest  immigrants  but 
there  is  abundant  evidence 
that  pottery-making, 
weaving,  and  agriculture 
were  independently  in- 
vented long  after  the  ori- 
ginal settlement.  The  cul- 
tivated plants  in  the  New 
World  are  different  from 
those  of  the  Old  World 
and  there  is  a  vast  area  in 
northwestern  America 
and  northeastern  Asia,  up- 
on the  only  open  line  of 
communication,  where  agriculture  and  the  higher  arts 
have  never  been  practised. 

Now  the  invention  of  agriculture  is  an  antecedent 
necessity  for  all  the  high  cultures  of  the  New  World.  It 
is  equally  clear  that  this  invention  must  have  taken 
place  in  a  locality  where  some  important  food  plant 
grew  in  a  wild  state.  By  far  the  most  important  food 
plant  of  the  New  World  is  maize.  While  this  plant  has 
changed  greatly  under  domestication,  botanists  are  in- 
clined to  find  its  nearest  relative  and  possible  progenitor 
in  a  wild  grass  growing  on  the  highlands  of  Mexico  and 
known  by  the  Aztecan  name  teocentli,  which  means 


Fig.  12.      TeocentU  or  Mexi- 
can Fodder  Grass. 


THE  ARCHAIC  HORIZON  47 

sacred  maize.  It  is  known  that  maize  is  at  its  best  in  a 
semi-arid  tropical  environment.  It  cannot  be  brought 
to  withstand  frost  although  the  growing  season  can  be 
cut  down  to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  short  summer. 
Geographically  its  use  extended  from  the  St.  Lawrence 
to  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  from  sea  level  to  an  elevation 
of  f  fteen  thousand  feet  in  tropical  regions.  The  Mexi- 
can highlands  occupy  the  central  position  in  the  area 
of  its  distribution  and  archaeological  evidence  strongly 
points  to  this  region  as  being  the  cradle  of  agriculture 
and  the  attendant  arts.  Besides  maize,  the  most 
widely  distributed  food  plants  of  the  New  World  are 
beans  and  squashes.  Certain  other  plants  were  culti- 
vated in  more  restricted  areas  and  may  have  had  dif- 
ferent places  of  origin.  For  instance,  manioc  was 
doubtless  brought  under  cultivation  in  a  humid  lowland 
region,  probably  the  Amazon  Valley,  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  sweet  potatoes.  The  common  potato  was 
found  under  domestication  in  Peru  and  there  is  no  very 
good  evidence  that  its  use  extended  into  Central  America. 
Irrigation  would  have  been  necessary  before  agricul- 
ture could  have  been  developed  to  any  great  extent  on 
the  highlands  of  Mexico.  Although  irrigation  is  often 
looked  upon  as  a  remarkable  sequel  of  the  introduction 
of  agriculture  into  an  arid  country,  yet  from  the  best 
historical  evidence  at  our  command  we  should  rather 
regard  it  as  a  conception  which  accounts  for  the  very 
origin  of  agriculture  itself.  The  earliest  records  of 
cultivated  plants  are  from  Mesopotamia,  Egypt, 
Mexico,  and  Peru  where  irrigation  was  practised  and 
where  in  these  regions  are  also  seen  the  earliest  develop- 
ments of  the  characteristic  arts  of  sedentary  peoples, 
namely,  pottery  and  weaving  and  the  elaborate  social 
and  religious  structures  that  result  from  a  sure  food 
supply  and  a  reasonable  amount  of  leisure. 


[a] 


[b] 

Plate  VI.  (a)  Large  Archaic  Figures  found  in  Graves  and  offer- 
ing Evidence  of  Ancient  Customs  and  Arts.  From  Tepic  and  Jalisco ; 
(6)  Archaic  Figures  which  show  a  Quality  of  Caricature  or  possibly 
Portraiture. 

48 


THE  ARCHAIC  HORIZON 


49 


If  this  theory  is  true  we  must  admit  that  below  the 
Archaic  Horizon  we  should  find  traces  of  a  horizon  of 
non-agricultural  peoples.  Unfortunately,  such  peoples 
make  fewer  objects  and  scatter  them  more  widely  than 
do  sedentary  agriculturists. 

No  one  on  the  basis  of  present  knowledge  can  offer 
more  than  an  opinion  concerning  the  date  of  the  inven- 
tion of  agriculture  in  the  New  World  and  the  subse- 
quent beginning  of  the  pottery  art  that  will  now  claim 
our  attention.  The  thick  deposits  argue  great  age  and 
a  thousand  years  or  even  more  might  have  elapsed  be- 
fore this  archaic  art  ran  its  natural  course  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  higher  arts  at  about  the  time  of  Christ. 

Archaic  Figurines.  Archaic  art  is  characterized 
by  figures  of  men  and  women  modeled  in  clay  and  some- 
times painted.  The  forms  are  peculiar  and  the  tech- 


9 


Fig.  13.  Figurines  from  the  Earliest  Culture  Horizon  in  Mex- 
ico: a-c,  Atzcapotzalco;  d,  San  Juan  Teotihuacan;  e,  Tuxpan; 
/,  Zapotlan;  g,  Cuernavaca. 


50 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


nique  well  standardized.  Most  are  modeled  in  a  flat 
gingerbread  fashion  into  a  gross  shape.  Upon  this 
gross  shape  special  features  are  indicated  by  stuck-on 
ribbons  and  buttons  of  clay  and  by  gougings  and  incis- 
ings  with  some  pointed  instrument.  Modeling  was 
done  entirely  by  hand,  moulds  being  as  yet  unknown. 
The  figurines  are  usually  from  two  to  five  inches  in 
height  and  often  represent  nude  women  in  sitting  or 
standing  positions  with  the  hands  upon  the  knees,  hips, 
or  breasts.  The  heads  are  characteristically  of  slight 


Fig.  14.     Archaic  Figurine  from  Salvador. 

depth  compared  with  their  height,  the  limbs  taper 
rapidly  from  a  rather  plump  torso  and  hands  and  feet 
are  mere  knobs  with  incised  details.  When  the  figures 
are  intended  to  stand  erect,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  feet 
show  signs  of  having  been  pinched  between  the  thumb 
and  finger  of  the  potter  so  that  they  have  a  forward  and 
backward  cusp  and  a  broad  base  of  support.  Groov- 
ings  are  seen  in  connection  with  the  hair,  eyes,  mouth, 
fingers,  toes,  and  details  of  dress  and  ornament.  Paint 
is  often  added  to  this  surface  to  indicate  tattooing,  tex- 
tile patterns,  etc. 


THE  ARCHAIC  HORIZON  51 

The  eyes  of  the  archaic  images — and  the  mouths  as 
well — are  made  according  to  several  methods.  First, 
there  is  the  simple  groove;  second,  a  groove  across  an 
applied  ball  or  button  of  clay;  third,  a  round  gouging 
made  by  the  end  of  a  blunt  implement  held  vertically; 
fourth,  a  round  gouging  in  an  applied  ball  or  button  of 
clay;  fifth,  two  gougings  made  with  a  round  or  chisel- 
edged  implement  held  at  an  angle.  The  second  form 
of  eye,  which  resembles  a  grain  of  coffee,  and  the  fifth 
form  with  the  double  gouging  made  from  the  center  out- 


Fig.  15.     Types  of  Eyes  of  Archaic  Figurines. 

ward,  are  found  from  the  northern  limits  of  archaic  art 
in  Mexico  as  far  south  as  Colombia  and  Venezuela. 

The  technique  of  manufacture  naturally  changes 
somewhat  with  the  increase  in  size.  There  is  also 
reason  to  believe  that  the  largest  hollow  figures  come 
from  the  end  of  the  Archaic  Period  in  Mexico,  and 
especially  those  that  have  been  found  in  the  state  of 
Jalisco  and  the  territory  of  Tepic.  The  eyelids  are  often 
rather  carefully  modeled  and  sometimes  an  eyeball  is 
put  in  between  the  lids.  These  and  perforated  eyes 
seem  to  be  the  latest  characters  to  be  developed  in  the 
archaic  art  and  it  is  significant  that  they  are  not  found 
over  such  a  wide  area  as  the  forms  of  eyes  given  above. 

Ancient  Customs.  We  may  gather  much  of  an 
ethnological  nature  from  the  study  of  these  quaint 
figures.  Articles  of  dress  and  adornment  are  shown  as 
well  as  musical  instruments,  weapons,  etc.  Head- 
dresses may  consist  of  fillets,  turbans,  and  objects 
perched  on  one  side  of  the  head.  Noserings  and  ear- 


52  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

rings  are  abundantly  represented  and  in  considerable 
variety.  We  may  be  sure  that  weaving  was  rather 
highly  developed  because  many  garments  such  as 
shirts,  skirts,  and  aprons  are  painted  or  incised  with 
geometric  designs.  Body  painting,  or  tattooing,  appears 
to  have  been  a  common  usage.  Among  weapons  the 
allatl,  or  spear-thrower,  was  already  known  and  knobby 
clubs  seem  to  have  been  popular.  Men  are  shown 
beating  on  drums  and  turtle  shells,  while  women  nurse 
children  and  carry  water.  Since  the  large  figures  of 
clay  are  often  found  in  tombs  it  is  not  impossible  that 


Fig.  16.     Textile  Designs  painted  on  Archaic  Effigies. 

they  were  intended  to  be  portraits  of  the  dead.     Many 
have  a  startling  quality  of  caricature. 

Archaic  art  is  a  pretty  certain  index  of  the  religion 
then  in  vogue.  There  is  a  notable  absence  of  purposely 
grotesque  or  compounded  figures  representing  divinities 
such  as  will  be  found  in  the  later  horizons.  Dogs  are 
rather  frequently  modeled  in  clay  and  were  apparently 


THE  ARCHAIC  HORIZON  53 

developed  into  a  rather  special  domestic  breed.  Snakes 
are  sometimes  shown.  We  miss  entirely  the  characteris- 
tic Mexican  gods  such  as  Tlaloc  and  Ehecatl.  We  can 
find  no  evidence  that  human  sacrifice  was  practised. 
The  presence  of  human  figurines  in  graves  has  already 
been  mentioned.  The  nude  female  figurine  in  a  sitting 
or  standing  position  has  an  unbroken  distribution  from 
Mexico  into  South  America  and  it  is  not  unlikely  the 
primitive  agriculturists  associated  it  with  fertility  and 
used  it  as  an  amulet  to  secure  good  crops. 

Archaic  Pottery..     The  ordinary  pottery  of  the 
Archaic  Period  from  Mexico  and  Central  America  is 


Fig.  17.     Typical  Tripod  Vessels  of  the  Archaic  Period,  from 
Morelos,  Mexico. 

heavy  and  simple  in  shape.  The  globular  bowl  with  a 
constricted  neck  is  a  common  form  as  well  as  wide- 
mouthed  bowls  with  or  without  tripod  supports.  Lugs 
and  handles  are  very  common.  When  plain,  the  tripods 
are  large,  hollow  and  rounded,  with  a  perforation  on  the 
under  side,  but  they  are  often  modified  into  faces  and 
feet.  Many  vessels  are  decorated  by  the  addition  of 
faces  enabling  us  to  make  a  direct  connection  with  the 
figures  in  clay  already  described. 

In  fact  the  decoration  of  pottery  of  this  early  period 
is  predominantly  in  relief.  Paint  is  sparingly  used  and 
then  only  in  the  simplest  geometric  fashion.  There  is 
a  general  lack  of  conventionalized  motives  presenting 
animals  and  other  natural  forms  in  highly  modified 
ways.  In  later  ages  the  painted  decoration  is  much 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


concerned  with  the  serpent,  but  except  for  a  few  wind- 
ing serpents  in  relief,  this  motive  is  not  seen  on  the 
pottery  of  the  Archaic  Period. 

Stone  Smlptures  of  the  Archaic  Period.  The 

earliest  ston^^dptures  are  recognized  first  by  resem- 
blance to  the  ceSfc^rt  just  described  and  second  by  a 
quality  which  the^^^gfcrf  being  archaic  in  an  abso- 
lute sense.  The  greatS^^^^ulty  of  working  stone  as 
compared  with  clay  and  tn^^fcger  time  required  in  the 
process  makes  stone  art  less  subject  to  caprice  than 
ceramic  art.  Perhaps  the  most  primitive  examples  of 
stone  sculpture  are  boulders  rudely  carved  in  a  sem- 
blance of  the  human  form  with  features  either  sunken 
or  in  relief.  The  arms  and  legs  are  ordinarily  flexed  so 
that  the  elbows  meet  over  the  knees.  The  eyes  and 
mouths  in  the  most  carefully  finished  pieces  protrude, 
but  the  face  has  little  or  no  modeling.  Many  celts  are 


Fig.  18.     Series  showing  the  Modification  of  a  Celt  into  a  Stone 
Amulet. 

modified  into  figures  by  grooves,  and  faces  are  frequently 
represented  on  roughly  conical  or  disk-shaped  stones. 
We  know  very  little  from  actual  excavations  concern- 
ing houses  of  the  Archaic  Period.  It  is  likely  that  they 
were  small  and  impermanent,  possibly  resembling  the 
modern  huts.  The  pyramidal  mound  as  a  foundation 


(b] 

Plate  VII.  (a)  Stone  Sculptures  of  the  Archaic  Period.  This 
resembles  the  pottery  as  regards  style:  the  eyes  protrude  and  the 
limbs  are  carved  in  low  relief  against  the  body;  (6)  Typical  bite 
of  the  Archaic  Period.  The  use  of  pyramids  may  have  begun 
towards  the  end  of  this  period. 

55 


56  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

for  the  temple  was  possibly  developed  towards  the  end 
of  the  Archaic  Period.  It  would  be  interesting  to 
determine  whether  adobe  moulded  into  bricks  was 
known  at  this  time,  as  it  was  at  a  later  time  in  the  same 
region,  or  whether  walls  were  built  up  out  of  fresh  mud 
possibly  reinforced  by  slabs  of  stone. 

Extensions  of  the  Archaic  Horizon.      The 

curious  objects  of  ceramic  art  that  we  have  found  deeply 
buried  under  the  debris  of  higher  civilizations  in  the 
Valley  of  Mexico  can  be  traced  practically  without 
change  in  form  to  Nicaragua.  They  are  encountered 
for  the  most  part  in  arid  and  open  country,  and  since 
we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  earliest  agri- 
culture was  developed  under  irrigation,  it  is  but  natural 
to  find  the  use  of  agriculture  spreading  first  into  other 
arid  regions. 

In  the  Isthmian  region  (Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  and 
Panama)  many  figurines  of  archaic  type  are  found,  and 
besides  there  are  fine  series  of  figurines  that  are  obvi- 
ously developed  from  the  archaic.  Still  further  south 
and  east  in  Colombia  and  Venezuela  the  typical  art  of 
the  archaic  horizon  again  appears  in  almost  pure  form, 
although  local  developments  are  also  to  be  noted  ^ 
Everywhere  the  remains  are  most  plentiful  in  arid- 
regions.  It  now  seems  that  the  trail  of  this  ancient 
pottery  art,  marking  the  first  dissemination  of  agricul- 
ture, can  be  traced  across  the  northern  part  of  South 
America  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  and  southward 
along  the  Andes  to  the  coastal  regions  of  Peru.  It  is 
surely  significant  that  figurines  from  the  Island  of 
Marajo  near  Para,  Brazil,  have  fundamental  similarities 
to  those  from  Venezuela  and  Central  America  and. that  a 
stratification  of  human  remains  at  Ancon,  Peru,  as 
explained  by  Dr.  Max  Uhle,  shows  plastic  art  in  clay 


wi 


Plate  VIII.  Widely  Distributed  Female  Figurines:  (a) 
Nicaragua;  (6)  Panama;  (c)  Venezuela;  (d)  Island  of  Marajo, 
Brazil. 

57 


Plate  IX.  Distribution  of  the  Archaic  Culture.  The  areas  in 
solid  black  show  the  distribution  of  figurines  of  the  archaic  type;  the 
areas  in  dots  show  the  probable  extension  of  pottery  on  the  Archaic 
Horizon;  the  dotted  lines  give  the  ultimate  extension  of  pottery. 


58 


THE  ARCHAIC  HORIZON  59 

similar  if  not  identical  with  that  of  Central  America  in 
the  lowermost  level.  The  problem  of  local  develop- 
ments deserves  careful  study  because  if  the  theory  that 
this  pottery  art  spread  hand  in  hand  with  agriculture 
be  true  then  the  greatest  similarities  should  be  seen 
in  the_oldest  objects.  Once  the  primary  dissemination  of 
agriculture  and  ceramics  had  taken  place  there  would 
be  few  inventions  capable  of  breaking  down  the  ordinary 
boundaries  of  language  and  environment  as  these  had 
done.  In  our  own  times  the  horse,  introduced  by  the 
Spaniards,  spread  rapidly  through  native  tribes,  modi- 
fying their  lives  greatly.  It  is  capable  of  demonstration 
that  with  the  horse  went  the  two  types  of  saddle — the 
pack  saddle  and  the  riding  saddle.  Similarly,  in  the 
rapid  first  spreading  of  agriculture,  pottery  and  possibly 
weaving  appear  as  parts  of  a  complex.  Of  course,  we 
must  grant  a  sufficient  time  in  the  original  home  of  agri- 
culture for  these  things  to  be  developed. 

Two  maps  of  the  New  World  are  given  herewith :  the 
first  showing  the  extension  of  the  archaic  horizon  and 
the  second  the  final  distribution  of  pottery  among  the 
American  Indians  and  the  final  distribution  of  agricul- 
ture. The  agricultural  area  is  subdivided  according  to, 
first,  the  arid  land  type  where  irrigation  is  generally 
practised;  second,  the  humid  land  type;  and  third,  the 
temperate  land  type.  The  first  type  of  agriculture 
appears  to  be  the  earliest  and  the  range  coincides  for  the 
most  part  with  the  range  of  the  archaic  pottery  art. 

Local  Developments  of  Archaic  Art.      We 

have  now  examined  the  status  of  this  earliest  pottery  in 
Mexico  and  Central  America  and  discussed  the  problem 
of  its  distribution  into  South  America.  Let  us  next  turn 
our  attention  to  some  of  the  developments  that  took 
place  when  this  art  was  locally  permitted  to  work  out 


Plate  X.  Distribution  of  Agriculture  in  the  New  World.  The 
dotted  line  gives  the  limits  of  pottery;  solid  black,  agriculture  in  arid 
regions  of  considerable  altitude,  mostly  with  irrigation;  dotted  areas, 
agriculture  under  humid  lowland  conditions;  lined  area,  agriculture 
under  temperate  conditions. 


(50 


THE  ARCHAIC  HORIZON  61 

its  higher  destinies.  The  sudden  rise  of  the  superior 
culture  of  the  Mayas  snuffed  it  out  untimely  in  southern 
Mexico,  but  in  other  and  more  distant  regions  the  in- 
fluence of  the  ascendant  Mayan  civilization  was  less 
strongly  felt  and  was  not  sufficient  to  more  than  modify 
the  original  character  of  the  archaic  art.  In  other 
words,  where  the  archaic  art  was  given  a  few  extra  cen- 
turies to  run  it  arrived  at  superior  results. 

It  is  probable  that  the  unusually  elaborate  effigies,i 
from  western  Mexico  are  somewhat  later  in  date  than 
the  comparatively  simple  figurines  of  central  Mexico] 
But  still  better  examples  of  local  development  out  o'f 
the  archaic  are  to  be  found  in  the  Isthmian  area.  Here 
the  most  ancient  remains  (according  to  types,  since 
actual  stratigraphy  has  not  yet  been  determined)  appear 
to  be  common  in  the  arid  regions  and  rare  in  the  humid  ( 
regions.  But  in  certain  humid  regions,  such  as  the 
Peninsula  of  Nicoya  on  the  Pacific  side  of  Costa  Rica 
and  the  Mercedes  district  on  the  Atlantic  side,  are  found 
modified  types  of  clay  figurines  and  stone  carvings  that 
still  retain  many  archaic  features.  Now,  there  is  little 
doubt  that  in  general  these  figurines  and  sculptures  be- 
long to  an  horizon  above  that  of  the  truly  archaic.  The 
associated  decorative  art  in  painting  is  of  a  higher  type 
than  that  of  the  Archaic  Period  in  the  north  and  shows 
in  fact  many  points  of  contact  with  the  painted  designs 
on  the  vessels  of  the  Mayan  civilization. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  type  of  figurine  (found 
in  both  the  localities  named  above,  but  more  common  in 
the  west)  represents  a  nude  female  in  a  sitting  pose. 
The  actual  body  treatment  is  very  like  that  of  the 
archaic  seated  females  from  Salvador  and  Mexico,  but 
the  surface  is  painted  over  with  designs  in  glossy  black 
upon  dark  and  brilliant  red.  The  paints  as  well  as  the 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


designs  are  peculiar  and  it  is  possible  to  group  the 
figurines  with  vases  in  which  the  same  pigments  and 
decorations  are  used.  Now,  these  associated  vases  are 
characteristically  of  the  cylindrical  shape  that  was  in 

great  vogue  among  the 
Mayas  in  post -archaic 
times  and  the  designs  paint- 
ed upon  these  vases  also 
have  many  features  in  com- 
mon with  Mayan  work. 

Likewise  when  we  pass 
to  the  Chiriqui  region  in 
western  Panama  we  find 
the  seated  female  to  be 
common.  Again,  the  asso- 
ciated designs  are  compli- 
cated and  developed  far 
beyond  the  point  reached 
in  the  truly  archaic  of  the 
northern  stratigraphic  se- 
ries. The  figurines  belong 
to  what  has  been  called 
"alligator  ware,"  because 
the  alligator  or  crocodile  is 
the  subject  of  many  of  the 
designs.  A  safer  classifi- 
cation is  made  on  the  basis 
of  the  clay  and  pigments. 


Fig.  19.  Stone  Sculpture  with 
protruding  Eyes  and  other 
Archaic  Characters.  Costa 
Rica. 


The  archaic  technique  is 
also  presented  in  much  of 
the  relief  decoration  of  still 
other  kinds  of  pottery  from  the  Isthmian  area.  In  the 
beautiful  yellow  ware  of  Chiriqui  small  human  figures 
in  the  ancient  style  serve  to  decorate  handles,  knobs, 
and  legs. 


\ 


THE  ARCHAIC  HORIZON  63 

In  stone  art  as  well  as  in  pottery  there  are  local  devel- 
opments out  of  the  archaic  mode  in  Costa  Rica  and 
Panama.  Crude  figures  with  the  parts  carved  in  low 
relief  around  oval  boulders  seem  to  give  away  to  more 
conventionalized  sculptures  made  on  slabs  of  sandstone. 
For  this  second  type  the  limbs  are  partly  freed  from 
the  torso,  while  in  still  later  sculptures  they  are 
freed  entirely. 

The  ancient  gold  work  of  Costa  Rica  and  Panama  also 
reflects  the  technique  of  archaic  art  although  most  of  it, 
to  judge  by  the  religious  significance  of  many  of  the  sub- 
jects and  designs,  was  made  long  after  the  Archaic 
Period.  Just  as  the  pottery  figurines  were  built  up  by 
the  addition  of  ribbons  and  buttons  of  clay  to  a  general- 
ized form  so  the  patterns  for  gold  castings  were  made  by 
adding  details  in  rolled  wax  or  resin  to  a  simple  under- 
lying form  of  the  same  material.  This  art  will  be  dis- 
cussed more  fully  in  another  place,  the  mention  here 
being  made  simply  to  emphasize  the  general  connection 
between  the  art  of  the  Archaic  Period  and  that  of  later 
periods. 

Summary.  In  concluding  this  section  let  us  sum 
up  the  general  facts  of  ancient  American  history  as 
these  appear  in  relation  to  the  archaeological  evidences 
of  the  ar<5haic  horizon. 

I.     Pre- Archaic  Horizon. 

The  peopling  of  the  New  World  from  Asia 
by  tribes  on  the  nomadic  plane  of  culture. 
II.     The  Archaic  Horizon. 

Invention  and  primary  dissemination  of  agri- 
culture, together  with  pottery  making  and  loom 
weaving.  Homogeneous  culture  with  unde- 
veloped religion  and  unsymbolic  art.  Practi- 
cally limited  to  arid  tropics. 


64  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

III.     Post  Archaic  Horizon. 

Specialized  cultures  in  North,  Central,  and 
South  America  dependent  upon  agriculture. 
Strong  local  developments  in  esthetic  arts,  re- 
ligious ideas,  and  social  institutions.  Agricul- 
ture extended  to  humid  tropical  and  temperate 
regions. 

We  will  now  make  an  effort  to  analyze  still  further  the 
historical  levels  in  the  Post  Archaic  Horizon. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION 

wonderful  culture  of  the  Mayan  Indians  to 
A  which  we  will  now  turn  our  attention  was  developed 
in  the  humid  lowlands  of  Central  America  and  especially 
in  the  Yucatan  peninsula.  Artists  are  everywhere  of 
the  opinion  that  the  sculptures  and  other  products  of 
the  Mayas  deserve  to  rank  among  the  highest  art  pro- 
ducts of  the  world,  and  astronomers  are  amazed  at  the 
progress  made  by  this  people  in  the  measuring  of  time 
by  the  observed  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
Moreover,  they  invented  a  remarkable  system  of 
hieroglyphic  writing  by  which  they  were  able  to  record 
facts  and  events  and  they  built  great  cities  of  stone 
that  attest  a  degree  of  wealth  and  splendor  beyond  any- 
thing seen  elsewhere  in  the  New  World. 

(The  Mayan  culture  was  made  possible  by  the  agri- 
cultural conquest  of  the  rich  lowlands  where  the  exuber- 
ance of  nature  can  only  be  held  in  check  by  organized 
effort.,  On  the  highlands  the  preparation  of  the  land 
is  comparatively  easy,  owing  to  scanty  natural  vegeta- 
tion and  a  control  vested  in  irrigation.  On  the  lowlands, 
however,  great  trees  have  to  be  felled  and  fast-growing 
bushes  kept  down  by  untiring  energy.  But  when 
nature  is  truly  tamed  she  returns  recompense  many 
fold  to  the  daring  farmer.  Moreover,  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  the  removal  of  the  forest  cover  over  large 
areas  affects  favorably  the  conditions  of  life  which  under 
a  canopy  of  leaves  are  hard  indeed. 

The  principal  crops  of  the  Mayas  were  probably  much 
the  same  as  on  the  highlands,  with  maize  as  the  great 
staple.  Varieties  favorable  to  a  humid  environment 


65 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  67 

had  doubtless  been  developed  from  the  highland  stock 
by  selective  breeding  as  agriculture  worked  its  \\-.\\ 
down  into  the  lowlands.  Archaic  art  appears  along 
the  edges  of  the  Mayan  area  in  the  state  of  Vera  Cruz, 
Mexico,  and  in  the  Uloa  Valley,  Honduras.  In  both 
these  regions  are  also  found  clay  figurines  that  mark  the 
transition  in  style  between  the  archaic  and  the  Mayan 
as  well  as  finished  examples  of  the  latter.  There  can  be 
no  doubt,  then,  that  the  archaic  art  of  Mexico  marks  an 
earlier  horizon  than  the  Mayan.  Whether  or  not  it  was 
once  laid  entirely  across  the  Mayan  area  cannot  be 
decided  on  present  data  but  it  seems  unlikely.  We  have 
already  seen  that  this  first  art  was  distributed  primarily 
across  arid  and  open  territory. 

With  their  calendrical  system  already  in  working 
order  the  Mayas  appear  on  the  threshold  of  history 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Era  according  to  a 
correlation  with  European  chronology  that  will  be  ex- 
plained later.  The  first  great  cities  were  Tikal  in 
northern  Guatemala  and  Cppan  in  western  Honduras, 
both  of  which  had  a  long  and  glorious  existence.  Many 
others  sprang  into  prominence  at  a  somewhat  later  date; 
for  example,  Palenque,  Yaxchilan  or  Menche,  Piedras 
Negras,  Seibal,  Naranjo,  and  Quirigua.  The  most 
brilliant  period  was  from  300  to  600  A.  D.,  after  which 
all  these  cities  appear  to  have  been  abandoned  to  the 
forest  that  soon  closed  over  them.  The  population 
moved  to  northern  Yucatan,  where  it  no  longer  reacted 
strongly  upon  the  other  nations  of  Central  America 
and  where  it  enjoyed  a  second  period  of  brilliancy 
several  hundred  years  later. 

Architecture.  Thejdea_of_a  civic  center-  is  ad- 
mirably illustrated  jn_Mayan  cities,  particularly  those 
of  the  first  bnlTiant  period.  The  principal  structures 


Plate  XII.  (a)  View  of  the  Plaza  at  Copan  from  the  North- 
western Corner.  This  view  shows  the  monuments  in  position  and 
the  steps  which  may  have  served  as  seats;  (6)  View  Across  the  Arti- 
ficial Acropolis  at  Copan  showing  a  Sunken  Court  and  the  Bases  of 
Two  Temple  Structures.  Photographs  by  Peabody  Museum  Expedi- 
tion. 

68 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  69 

are  built  around  courts  or  plazas  and  .there  is  usually 
an  artificial  acropolis  which  is  a  great  terraced  mound 
serving  as  a  common  base  or  platform  from  which  the 
individual  pyramidal  bases  of  several  temples  rise.  At 
some  sites  this  acropolis  is  a  natural  hill  which  has  been 
trimmed  down  or  added  to,  but  at  other  sites  it  is 
entirely  artificial.  At  Copan  there  is  an  especially  fine 
example  of  artificial  platform  mound  rising  from  one 
end  of  the  Great  Plaza  and  affording  space  for  several 
temples  as  well  as  for  sunken  courts  with  stepped  sides 
that  may  have  been  theatres.  The  river  washing 
against  one  side  of  this  great  mound  has  removed  per- 
haps a  third  of  it  and  made  a  vertical  section  that  shows 
the  method  of  construction.  It  is  apparent  that  the 
mound  was  enlarged  and  old  walls  and  floors  buried. 

Mayan  buildings  are  of  too  principal  kinds.  One  is 
a  temple  pure  and  simple  and  the  other  has  been  called 
a  palace.  The  temple  is  a  rectangular  structure  crown- 
ing a  rather  high  pyramid  that  rises  in  several  steps  or 
terraces.  As  a  rule  the  temple  has  a  single  front  with 
one  or  more  doorways  and  is  approached  by  a  broad 
stairway.  The  pyramid  is  ordinarily  a  solid  mass  of 
rubble  and  earth  faced  with  cement  or  cut  stone  and 
rarely  contains  compartments.  Some  temples  have 
but  a  single  chamber  while  others  have  two  or  more 
chambers,  the  central  or  innermost  one  being  specially 
developed  into  a  sanctuary.  The  so-called  palaces  are 
clusters  of  rooms  on  low  and  often  irregular  platforms. 
These  palaces  may  have  been  habitations  of  the  priests 
and  nobility.  The  common  people  doubtless  lived  in 
palm-thatched  huts  similar  to  those  used  today  in  the 
some  region. 

The  typical  Mayan  construction  is  a  faced  concrete. 
The  limestone,  which  abounds  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 


70 


Plate  XIV.  A  Sealed  Portal  Vault  in  the  House  of  the  Governor 
at  Uxmal.  The  veneer  character  of  the  cut  stone  comes  out  clearly. 
Peabody  Museum  photograph. 


71 


72  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

Mayan  area,  was  burned  into  lime.  This  was  then 
slaked  to  make  mortar  and  applied  to  a  mass  of  broken 
limestone.  The  facing  stones  were  smoothed  on  the 
outside  and  left  rough  hewn  and  pointed  on  the  inside. 
It  is  likely  that  these  facing  stones  were  held  in  place 
between  forms  and  the  lime,  mortar  and  rubble  filled  in 
between.  The  resulting  wall  was  essentially  mono- 
lithic. The  rooms  of  Mayan  buildings  are  characteris- 
tically vaulted  but  the  roof  is  not  a  true  arch  with  a 
keystone.  The  vault,  like  the  walls,  is  a  solid  mass  of 
concrete  that  grips  the  cut  stone  veneer  and  that  must 


CL 


Fig.  20.     Groundplans  of  Yaxchilan  Temples: 
42;  (6)  Structure  23. 


(a)  Structure 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION 


73 


have  been  held  in  place  by  a  false  work  form  while  it  was 
hardening.  The  so-called  corbelled  arch  of  overstepping 
stones  was  doubtless  known  to  the  Mayan  builders  but 


Fig.  21.  Cross- section  of  Typical  Mayan  Temple  in  Northern 
Yucatan:  a,  upper  cornice;  b,  medial  cornice;  c,  upper  zone;  d,  lower 
zone;  e,  wooden  lintels;  /,  exterior  doorway;  g,  interior  doorway; 
h,  offset  at  spring  of  vault;  i,  cap  stone. 

was  little  used.  Taking  the  single  rectangular  room  as 
the  unit  of  construction  the  width  was  limited  to  the 
span  of  the  vault,  which  seldom  exceeded  twelve  feet, 
while  the  length  was  indeterminate. 

The  first  variation  from  the  temple  with  one  rectan- 
gular room  was  the  two-roomed  structure  with  one  cham- 
ber directly  behind  the  other.  In  this  case  there  were 
two  vaulted  compartments  separated  from  each  other 
by  a  common  supporting  wall  pierced  by  one  or  more 
doorways.  The  inner  room  was  naturally  more  dimly 
lighted  than  the  outer  one  and  as  a  result  was  modified 
into  a  sanctuary,  or  holy  of  holies,  enhanced  by  sculp- 


74  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

tures  and  paintings,  while  the  outer  room  developed 

gradually  into  a  portico.     The  outer  wall  was  cut  by 

doorways    till    only    pier-like    sections   remained,  and 

finally  these  piers  were  replaced  by  square  or  round 

,  columns.     The  development  of  the  Mayan  temple  may 

/  be  traced  through  a  thousand  years  of  change    and 

adjustment. 

Much  attention  was  paid  by  Mayan  builders  to  the 
question  of  stability  which  was  accomplished  directly 
by  keeping  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  principal  masses 
within  the  supporting  walls  rather  than  by  the  use  of 
binding  stones.  The  cross-section  of  a  two-roomed 
temple  of  late  date  will  illustrate  how  this  was  done. 
There  are  three  principal  masses,  one  over  the  front 
wall,  one  over  the  medial  partition,  and  one  over  the 
back  wall.  The  roof  where  these  sections  join  is  of  no 
great  thickness.  The  central  mass  is  symmetrical  and, 
if  the  mortar  has  the  proper  cohesiveness,  very  stable. 
For  the  front  and  back  masses  the  projection  of  the 
upper  or  frieze  zone  tends  to  counterbalance  the  over- 
hang of  half  the  vault.  In  the  earlier  temples  the  upper 
zone  of  the  fagade  often  slopes  backward  so  that  the 
balance  is  not  so  perfect. 

So  far  we  have  given  brief  space  to  the  question  of 
elevations.  Taken  vertically  there  are  three  parts  to 
/the  Mayan  building:  first,  the  substructure  or  pyra- 
'y  midal  base;  second,  the  structure  proper;  third,  the 
superstructure.  In  the  case  of  temples  the  structure 
proper  is  one  story  in  height.  Two  and  three  stories 
are  rather  common  in  palaces,  but  the  upper  stories  are 
in  most  cases  built  directly  over  a  solid  core  and  not 
over  the  rooms  of  the  lower  story.  The  upper  stories, 
therefore,  recede,  so  that  the  building  presents  a  ter- 
raced or  pyramidal  profile.  One  building  at  Tikal  is 
five  stories  in  height,  in  three  receding  planes,  the  three 


Fig.  22.  Section  through  Middle  of  Temple  of  the  Cross,  showing 
Perspective  of  East  Half  of  Building.  After  Holmes,  a,  stairway; 
6,  a  pier  between  doorways;  c,  end  of  portico  or  front  room; 
d,  small  doorway;  e,  great  doorway;  /,  doorway  to  sanctuary;  </,  end 
wall  of  sanctuary;  h,  sculptured  tablet;  i,  arch  brace  of  masonry; 
j,  cap  stones  of  doorway  arch;  k,  partition  wall;  I,  steps  for  as- 
cending interior  of  roof  comb;  m,  binding  stones  and  capping  of 
roof  comb. 


75 


76  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

uppermost  stories  being  one  above  the  other.  In  a 
tower  at  Palenque  we  have  an  example  of  four  stories 
but  this  is  unusual. 

On  top  of  the  building  proper,  especially  if  it  is  a 
temple,  we  frequently  find  a  superstructure.  This  is  a 
sort  of  crest,  or  roof  wall,  usually  pierced  by  windows. 
When  this  wall  rises  from  the  center  line  of  the  roof  it  is 
called  a  roof  comb  or  roof  crest,  and  when  it  rises  from 
the  front  wall  it  is  called  a  flying  fagade.  The  highest 
temples  in  the  Mayan  area  are  those  of  Tikal  that 
attain  a  total  height  of  about  175  feet,  counting  pyra- 
mid and  superstructure. 

Massive  Sculptural  Art.  The  decoration  of 
Mayan  buildings  may  be  considered  under  three  heads : 
first,  interior  decoration;  second,  fagade  decoration; 
third,  supplementary  monuments.  In  many  temples  at 
Yaxchilan,  Tikal,  etc.,  are  found  splendidly  sculptured 
lintels  of  stone  or  wood.  At  Copan  we  see  wall  sculp- 
tures that  adorn  the  entrance  to  the  sanctuary  and  at 
Palenque  finely  sculptured  tablets  let  into  the  rear  wall 
of  the  sanctuary.  Elsewhere  are  occasional  examples 
tof  mural  paintings,  sculptured  door  jambs,  decorated 
interior  steps,  etc. 

The  fagade  decorations  of  the  earlier  Mayan  struc- 
tures are  freer  and  more  realistic  than  those  of  the  later 
buildings.  In  many  cases  they  consist  of  figures  of  men, 
serpents,  etc.,  modeled  in  stucco  or  built  up  out  of 
several  nicely  fitted  blocks  of  stone.  Grotesque  faces 
also  occur.  In  the  later  styles,  decoration  consists 
largely  of  "mask  panels,"  which  are  grotesque  front 
view  faces  arranged  to  fill  rectangular  panels,  but  there 
is  an  increasing  amount  of  purely  geometric  ornament. 
The  masked  panels  represent  in  most  instances  a  highly 
elaborated  serpent's  face  which  sometimes  carries  the 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION 


77 


special  markings  of  one  of  the  greater  gods.  These 
panels,  considered  historically,  pass  through  some  inter- 
esting developments.  Angular  representations  of  ser- 
pent heads  in  profile  are  sometimes  used  at  the  sides  of 
doorways. 

The  supplementary  monuments  are  stelse  and  altars. 
These  are  monolithic  sculptures  that  are  often  set  up 
in  definite  relation  to  a  building  either  on  the  terraces 


Fig.  23.     Mask  Panel  over  Doorway  at  Xkichmook.     Yucatan. 

or  at  the  foot  of  the  stairway.  The  stelae  are  great 
plinths  or  slabs  of  stone  carved  on  one  or  more  sides 
with  the  figures  of  priests  and  warriors  loaded  down 
with  religious  symbols.  The  altars  are  smaller  stones 
usually  placed  in  front  of  the  stelse.  Many  stelae  and 
altars  are  set  up  in  plazas  and  have  no  definite  archi- 
tectural quality. 

Minor  Arts.  While  the  richly  ornamented  temples 
and  the  great  monoliths  attract  first  attention  as  works 
of  art,  the  humbler  products  of  the  potter,  the  weaver, 
and  the  lapidary  also  attained  to  grace  and  dignity. 

The  Mayas  were  expert  potters  and  employed  a 
variety  of  technical  processes  in  the  decoration  of  their 


Plate  XV.  (a)  Realistic  Designs  on  Vases  from  Chama,  Guate- 
mala, representing  the  Best  Mayan  Period  in  Pottery;  (6)  The 
Quetzal  as  represented  on  a  Painted  Cylindrical  Vase  from  Copan. 
Bands  of  Hieroglyphs  are  commonly  found  on  Mayan  Pottery. 

78 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  79 

wares,  such  as  painting,  modeling,  engraving,  and 
stamping.  We  can  only  take  time  to  examine  a  few 
examples  of  the  best  works,  leaving  the  commoner 
products  practically  undescribed.  Suffice  it  to  say, 
that  tripod  dishes  were  much  used,  as  well  as  bowls, 
bottle-necked  vessels,  and  cylindrical  vases,  and  that 
the  common  decorative  use  of  hieroglyphs  serves  to 
mark  off  Mayan  pottery  from  that  of  other  Central 
American  peoples.  The  realistic  designs  are  drawn  in 
accordance  with  the  highest  principles  of  decorative 
art.  Serpents,  monkeys,  jaguars,  various  birds,  as  well 
as  priests  and  supernatural  beings,  are  used  as  subjects 
for  pottery  embellishment.  Geometric  decoration  is 
also  much  used. 

The  polychrome  pottery  is  rare  and  exceptionally 
beautiful,  with  designs  relating  to  religious  subjects. 
The  background  color  of  these  cylindrical  vases  is 
usually  orange  or  yellow,  the  designs  are  outlined  in 
black,  and  the  details  filled  in  with  delicate  washes  of 
red,  brown,  white,  etc.  The  surface  bears  a  high 
polish  made  by  rubbing.  Plate  XV  reproduces  the  design 
units  on  two  vases  from  Chama,  Guatemala.  The  first 
example  pictures  a  seated  man  with  a  widespreading 
headdress  made  of  two  conventional  serpent  heads 
from  the  ends  of  which  issue  the  plumes  of  the  quetzal. 
The  hieroglyphs  are  Mayan  day  signs — Ben  and  Imix 
on  the  left  and  Kan  and  Caban  on  the  right.  The 
second  example  presents  a  god  before  an  altar.  The 
god  has  the  face  of  an  old  man  and  his  body  is  attached 
to  a  spiral  shell.  This  divinity  has  been  called  the  Old 
Man  God.  He  was  probably  associated  with  the  end 
of  the  year. 

In  the  next  illustration  an  engraved  design  on  a  bowl 
from  northern  Yucatan  is  given.  A  jaguar  attired  in 


Fig.  24.     Design  on  Engraved  Pot  representing  Tiger  seated  in 
Wreathe  of  Water  Lilies.     Northern  Yucatan. 


Fig.  25.     Painted  Design  on  Cylindrical  Bowl  showing  Serpent 
issuing  from  a  Shell.     Salvador. 


80 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  81 

the  dress  of  man  is  seated  in  a  wreathe  of  water  lilies. 
After  the  vessel  had  been  formed,  but  before  it  had  been 
fired,  this  design  was  made  by  cutting  away  the  back- 
ground and  incising  finer  details  on  the  original  surfaces. 
Other  designs  in  relief  were  obtained  by  direct  modeling 
or  by  stamping.  The  stamps  were  moulds  or  negatives 
made  from  bas-relief  patterns. 


Fig.  26.     Mayan   Basket   represented   in   Stone 
Sculpture. 


The  textile  arts  of  the  ancient  Mayas  can  be  recovered 
in  part  from  a  study  of  the  monuments  since  the  designs 
on  many  garments  are  reproduced  in  delicate  relief. 
The  designs  are  mostly  all-over  geometric  patterns, 
but  borders  reproducing  the  typical  "celestial  band," 
a  line  of  astronomical  symbols,  are  also  seen.  The 
techniques  of  brocade  and  lace  were  understood  by  the 
ancient  weavers.  In  the  minor  textile  art  of  basketry 
the  products  must  also  have  ranked  high;  a  typical 
basket  pictured  on  a  lintel  is  given  in  Fig.  26. 

Jade  and  other  semi-precious  stones  were  carved  by 
the  Mayas  into  beautiful  and  fantastic  shapes.  There 
was  a  considerable  use  of  mosaic  veneer  on  masks  and 
other  ceremonial  objects.  Metal  was  rare  and  could 
not  be  used  for  tools,  but  the  working  of  gold  and  copper 
in  the  manufacture  of  ornaments  was  on  a  high  plane. 


82  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

Having  now  passed  in  brief  review  the  objective  side 
of  Mayan  remains,  let  us  turn  our  attention  to  the  sub- 
jective. 

The  Serpent  in  Mayan  Art.  Mayan  art  is 
strange  and  unintelligible  at  first  sight,  but  after  care- 
ful study  many  wonderful  qualities  appear  in  it.  In 
the  knowledge  of  foreshortening  and  composition,  the 


Fig.  27.  Typical  Elaborated  Serpents  of  the  Mayas.  The 
plumed  serpent  is  from  Chichen  Itza  and  the  one  with  a  human  head 
in  its  mouth  from  Yaxchilan. 

Mayas  were  equal  if  not  superior  to  the  Egyptians 
and  Assyrians.  They  could  draw  the  human  body  in 
pure  profile  and  in  free  and  graceful  attitudes  and 
they  could  compose  several  figures  in  a  rectangular 
panel  so  that  the  result  satisfies  the  eye  of  a  modern 
artist. 

But,  unfortunately  for  our  fuller  understanding,  the 
human  form  had  only  a  minor  interest  because  the  gods 


Fig.  28.  Conventional  Serpent  of  the  Mayas  used  for  Decora- 
tive Purposes:  a,  body;  6,  ventral  scale;  c,  dorsal  scale;  d, 
nose;  e,  noseplug;  /,  incisor  tooth;  g,  molar  tooth;  h,  jaw; 
*»  eve;  J>  supraorbital  plate;  k,  earplug;  I,  ear  pendant;  ra, 
curled  fang;  n,  tongue;  o,  lower  jaw;  p,  beard;  q,  incisor  tooth. 


84  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

were  not  in  the  image  of  man  and  the  art  was  essentially 
gious.  The  gods  were  at  best  half  human  and  half 
animal  with  grotesque  elaborations.  The  high  esthetic 
qualities  were  therefore  wasted  on  subjects  that  appear 
trivial  to  many  of  us.  But,  as  we  break  away  more  and 
more  from  the  shackles  of  our  own  artistic  conventions, 
we  shall  be  able  to  appreciate  more  and  more  the  many 
beauties  of  ancient  American  sculpture. 

The  serpent  motive  controlled  the  character  of 
Mayan  art  and  was  of  first  importance  in  all  subse- 
quent arts  in  Central  America  and  Mexico.  The  ser- 
pent was  seldom  represented  realistically  and  yet  we 
may  safely  infer  that  the  rattlesnake  was  the  prevailing 
model.  Parts  of  other  creatures  were  added  to  the 
serpent's  body,  such  as  the  plumes  of  the  trogon  or 
quetzal,  the  teeth  of  the  jaguar,  and  the  ornaments  of 
man.  The  serpent  was  idealized  and  the  lines  character- 
istic of  it  entered  into  the  delineation  of  many  subjects 
distinct  from  the  serpent  itself.  Scrolls  and  other 
sinuous  details  were  attached  to  the  serpent's  body  and 
human  ornaments  such  as  earplugs,  noseplugs,  and  even 
headdresses  were  added  to  its  head.  Finally,  a  human 
head  was  placed  in  the  distended  jaws.  The  Mayas 
may  have  intended  to  express  the  essential  human  in- 
telligence of  the  serpent  in  this  fashion.  The  serpent 
with  a  human  head  in  its  mouth  doubtless  belongs  in  the 
same  category  as  the  partly  humanized  gods  of  Egypt, 
Assyria,  and  India.  It  illustrates  the  partial  assump- 
tion of  human  form  by  a  beast  divinity.  The  features 
combined  are  so  peculiar  and  unnatural  that  the  in- 
fluence of  Mayan  art  can  be  traced  far  and  wide  through 
Central  America  and  Mexico  by  comparative  study  of 
the  serpent  motive. 

A  typical  serpent  head  in  profile  (with  the  human 
head  omitted)  as  developed  by  the  Mayas  for  decora- 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  85 

tive  purposes  is  reproduced  in  Fig.  28  with  the  parts 
lettered  and  named.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  lines  of 
interest  in  this  design  are  either  vertical  or  horizontal, 
although  the  parts  themselves  have  sinuous  outlines. 
Two  features  of  the  typical  serpent's  body  enter  widely 


Fig.  29.  Upper  Part  of  Serpent  Head  rhade  into  a  Fret  Orna- 
ment: a,  Ixkun;  6,  Quirigua;  c,  d,  g,  Copan;  e,  Naranjo;  /, 
Seibal. 

into  the  enrichment  of  all  kinds  of  subjects.  One  of 
these  is  the  double  outline  which  is  derived  from  the 
line  paralleling  the  base  of  the  serpent's  body  and  serv- 
ing to  mark  off  the  belly  region.  The  second  feature 
is  the  small  circle  applied  in  bead-like  rows  to  represent 
scales.  The  profile  serpent  head  is  also  seen  in  scrolls 
and  frets  that  elaborate  many  details  of  dress  worn  by 
the  human  beings  carved  on  the  monuments.  The 
front  view  of  the  serpent's  head  is  usually  extended  to 
fill  an  oblong  panel  and  is  often  used  to  decorate  the  base 
of  a  monument  or  the  fagade  of  a  building.  There  are 
several  monsters  closely  connected  with  the  serpent 
that  will  be  discussed  as  the  description  proceeds. 

The  Human  Figure.  The  human  beings  pictured 
on  Mayan  monuments  are  captives,  rulers,  and  priests 
or  worshippers.  The  captives  are  poor  groveling  crea- 
tures, bound  by  rope,  held  by  the  hair  or  crushed  under 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

foot  to  fill  a  rectangular  space  over  which  the  conqueror 
stands.  The  rulers  and  priests  are  hard  to  distinguish 
from  each  other,  perhaps  because  the  government  was 
largely  theocratic  and  the  ruler  was  looked  upon  as  the 
spokesman  of  divinity.  The  spear  and  shield  of  war 
served  to  mark  off  certain  human  beings  from  others 
who  carry  religious  objects  such  as  the  Ceremonial  Bar 
and  the  Manikin  Scepter. 

Elaborate  thrones  are  shown  on  several  monuments — 
thrones  canopied  by  the  arched  body  of  the  Two-headed 
Dragon  that  bears  symbols  of  the  planets.  Over  all  is 
seen  the  great  Serpent  Bird  with  outstretched  wings. 
Upon  the  throne  is  seated  a  human  being  who  may 
safely  be  called  a  king  and  a  line  of  footprints  on  the 
front  of  the  throne  may  symbolize  ascent.  On  other 
monuments  the  commanding  personage  wears  the  mask 
of  a  god  and  wields  a  club  to  subdue  or  scatters  grain  to 
placate.  On  the  great  majority  of  monuments  the 
human  beings,  richly  attired  in  ceremonial  regalia  and 
carrying  a  variety  of  objects,  possibly  present  the  great 
warriors  and  priests  of  the  day.  Many  of  the  early 
sculptures  are  stiff  and  formal,  but  in  a  number  of  in- 
stances the  quality  of  actual  portraiture  is  convincing. 

Design  Composition  and  Perspective.     It  is 

difficult  to  compare  directly  the  graphic  and  plastic 
arts  of  different  nations  where  the  subject  matter  is 
diverse  unless  we  compare  them  in  accordance  with 
absolute  principles  of  design,  composition,  and  perspec- 
tive drawing.  The  Mayas  produced  one  of  the  few 
really  great  and  coherent  expressions  of  beauty  so  far 
given  to  the  world  and  their  influence  in  America  was 
historically  as  important  as  was  that  of  the  Greeks 
in  Europe.  Set  as  we  are  in  the  matrix  of  our  own 
religious  and  artistic  conventions,  we  find  it  difficult  to 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION 


87 


approach  sympathetically  beauty  that  is  overcast  with 
an  incomprehensible  religion.  When  we  can  bring  our- 
selves to  feel  the  serpent  symbolism  of  the  Mayan 
artists  as  we  feel,  for  instance,  the  conventional  halo 


Fig.  30.  Sculpture  on  Front  of  Lintel  at  Yaxchilan  showing 
Man  holding  Two-Headed  Serpent  with  a  Grotesque  God's  Head 
in  each  of  its  Mouths. 


Fig.  31.     Types  of  Human  Heads  on  the  Lintels  of  Yaxchilan. 


that  crowns  the  ideal  head  of  Christ,  then  we  shall  be 
able  to  recognize  the  truly  emotional  qualities  of  Mayan 
sculptures. 

It  is  generally  recognized  that  design  to  be  successful 
must  contain  order  of  various  sorts  (in  measurements, 
shapes,  directions,  tones,  colors,  etc.).  In  the  simpler 
forms  of  decorative  art  the  restrictions  of  technical 
process,  as  in  basketry,  may  impose  order,  but  in  free- 
hand sculpture  it  must  come  from  an  educated  sense  of 
beauty  involving  selection  and  the  reproduction  of  the 


Fig.  32.  Sculpture  on  Upper  Part  of  Stela  11, 
Seibal.  The  man  wears  a  mask  of  turquoise 
inlay  and  an  elaborate  headdress. 


88 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  89 

finest  qualities.  Design  at  its  highest  is  embodied  in 
the  Mayan  hieroglyphs.  Given  spaces  had  to  be  filled 
with  given  symbols  and  the  results  attained  were  uni- 
formly excellent.  Although  the  influence  of  the  ser- 
pent led  to  the  great  use  of  tapering  flame-like  masses 
in  nearly  all  Mayan  designs,  still  dominant  vertical 
and  horizontal  lines  of  interest  were  maintained. 

The  panel  and  lintel  sculptures  show  composition 
achieved  by  simple  and  subtle  methods.  The  sweeping 
plumes  of  headdresses  were  skilfully  used  to  fill  in 
corners,  while  blocks  of  glyphs  were  placed  in  open 
spaces  that  might  otherwise  distract  the  attention. 
Many  compositions  appear  overcrowded  to  us,  but  this 
fault  decreases  with  knowledge  of  the  subject  matter. 
Also,  the  Mayas  appear  to  have  painted  their  sculp- 
tures so  that  the  details  were  emphasized  by  color 
contrast. 

In  perspective  as  applied  to  the  human  figure  the    A 
Mayas  were  far  ahead  of  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians, 
since  they  could  draw  the  body  in  front  view  and  pure 
profile  without  the  distortions  seen  in  the  Old  World. 
They  were  even  able  to  make  graceful  approximations  of 
a  three-quarters  view,  as  may  be  seen  in  Plate  XVI, 
where  the  raising  of  the  nearer  shoulder  has  a  distinct^/ 
perspective  value. 

The  Mayan  Pantheon.  We  have  seen  that  during 
the  earliest  culture  of  Mexico  and  Central  America 
there  were  no  figurines  of  individualized  gods,  simply 
straightforward  representations  of  human  beings  and 
animals.  ^Wfth  the  Mayan  culture,  however,  we  enter 
upon  an  epoch  of  rich  religious  symbolism.  The  ser- 
pent, highly  conventionalized  as  we  have  just  seen, 
and  variously  combined  with  elements  taken  from 
the  quetzal,  the  jaguar,  and  even  from  man  himself, 


Plate  XVI.  Stela  13,  Piedras  Negras.  This  shattered  monument 
is  one  of  the  finest  examples  of  Mayan  Sculpture,  showing  a  fine 
sense  of  composition  and  a  considerable  knowledge  of  perspective. 


90 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  91 

appears  as  a  general  indication  of  divinity J  The 
Ceremonial  Bar,  essentially  a  two-headed  ""serpent 
carrying  in  its  mouths  the  heads  of  an  important  god, 


Fig.  33.  The  Ceremonial  Bar.  A  Two-Headed  Serpent  held  in 
the  Arms  of  Human  Beings  on  Stelae:  a,  Stela  P,  Copan;  b,  Stela 
N,  Copan. 


is  one  of  the  earliest  religious  objects. 
The  heads  that  appear  in  the  mouths 
are  usually  those  of  a  Roman-nosed 
or  of  a  Long-nosed  god.  Other  re- 
presentations of  divinities  are  com- 
bined with  the  Two-headed  Dragon 
that  also  has  reptilian  characters; 
still  others  appear  as  headdresses  and 
masks  on  human  figures.  Strange  to 
say,  the  gods  are  supplementary  to  the 
human  figures  on  all  the  early  sculp- 
tures. In  the  codices,  however,  they 
are  represented  apart  from  man,  as 
engaged  in  various  activities  and  con- 
Manikin  Scepter,  a  tests.  [Mayan  religion  was  clearly 

Grotesque    Figure     organized  on  a  dualistic  basis.     The 

with  one  Leg  modi-  »  , 

fied  into  a  Serpent,     powers  tor   good   are   in   a   constant 


92  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

struggle  with  the  powers  for  evil  and  most  of  the  benev- 
olent divinities  have  malevolent  duplicates.  In  actual 
form  the  gods  are  partly  human,  but  ordinarily  the 


,    Fig.  35.     The    Two-Headed    Dragon,    a    Monster    that    passes 
through  many  Forms  in  Mayan  Sculpture.     Copan. 

determining  features  are  grotesque  variations  from 
the  human  face  and  figure.  While  beast  associations 
are  sometimes  discernible,  they  are  rarely  controlling. 
Sometimes,  however,  beast  gods  are  represented  in 
unmistakable  fashion,  good  examples  being  the  jaguar, 
the  bat,  and  the  moan  bird.  All  of  these  have  human 
bodies  and  animal  headsfj 

The  head  position  in  the  Mayan  pantheon  may  with 
some  assurance  be  given  to  a  god  who  has  been  called 
the  Roman-nosed  god  and  who  is  probably  to  be  identi- 
fied with  Itzamna.  According  to  Spanish  writers 
Itzamna  was  regarded  by  the  Mayas  as  the  creator  and 
father  of  all,  the  inventor  of  writing,  the  founder  of  the 
Mayan  civilization,  and  the  god  of  light  and  life.  The 
Zeus  of  the  Mayas  is  represented  in  the  form  of  an  old 
man  with  a  high  forehead,  a  strongly  aquiline  nose,  and 
a  distended  mouth  that  is  usually  devoid  of  teeth.  On 
the  ancient  monuments  he  is  frequently  seen  in  the 
mouths  of  the  Ceremonial  Bar  and  also  in  association 
with  the  sun,  moon,  and  the  planet  Venus.  In  the 
codices  he  is  shown  as  a  protector  of  the  Maize  God  and 
in  other  acts  beneficial  to  man.  There  is,  however,  a 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  93 

malevolent  aspect  of  this  god  or  possibly  another  being 
who  imitates  his  features  but  not  his  qualities.  This 
being  may  be  an  old  woman  goddess  who  wears  a  ser- 
pent headdress  and  who  is  associated  with  destructive 
floods,  the  very  opposite  of  life-giving  sunshine. 

Of  almost  equal  importance  to  the  Roman-nosed  god 
is  a  god  whose  face  is  a  more  or  less  humanized  serpent. 
/This  god  has  been  identified  with  Kukulcan,  the  Plumed  | 
Serpent,  and_  the  Mayan  equivalent  of  the  Aztecan  \ 
QuetzalcoatLj  On  the  early  monuments  this  god  is 
shown  in  connection  with  the  Ceremonial  Bar.  He  also 
appears  at  a  somewhat  later  date  as  the  Manikin  \ 
Scepter,  an  object  in  the  form  of  a  manikin  that  is  held 
out  by  a  leg  modified  into  a  serpent's  body.  Since  a 
celt  is  usually  worn  in  the  forehead  of  the  manikin  it  has 
been  suggested  that  this  curious  object  represents  a 
ceremonial  battle-ax.  The  face  of  the  Long-nosed  god 
is  frequently  worn  by  high  priests  and  rulers  either  as  a 
headdress  or,  more  rarely,  as  a  mask.  It  is  possible  that 
this  divinity  was  regarded  as  primarily  a  war  god.  In 
the  codices  he  is  evidently  a  universal  deity  of  varied 
powers.  Especially  he  is  shown  in  connection— ^with 
water  and  maize  and  it  seems  likely  that  his  principal 
function  was  to  cause  life-giving  rain.  A  malevolent 
variant  of  the  Long-nosed  god  has  a  bare  bone  for  the 
lower  jaw,  a  sun  symbol  on  his  forehead,  and  a  head- 
dress consisting  of  three  symbols  of  uncertain  signifi- 
cance. This  head  is  associated  with  the  Two-headed 
Dragon  possibly  as  a  god  of  death-dealing  drought. 

Ahpuch,  the  Lord  of  Death,  was  the  principal  malevo- 
lent god.  His  body  as  figuredln  the  codices  is  a  strange 
compound  of  skeletal  and  full-fleshed  parts.  His  head 
is  a  skull  except  for  the  normal  ears.  His  spinal  column 
is  usually  bare  and  sometimes  the  ribs  as  well,  but  the 
arms  and  legs  are  often  covered  with  flesh.  As  added 


94 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


symbols  black  spots  and  dotted  lines  are  sometimes 
drawn  upon  his  body  and  a  curious  device  like  a  per- 
centage sign  upon  his  cheek.  The  Death  God  in  com- 
plete form  is  rarely  shown  in  the  earlier  sculptures, 
although  grinning  skulls  and  interlacing  bones  occur  as 
temple  decorations.  As  has  already  been  pointed  out, 
Mayan  religion  was  strongly  dualistic  and  the  evil 


x 


Fig.  36.     Gods  in  the  Dresden  Codex:  God  B,  the  Long-Nosed 
God  of  Rain;  God  A,  the  Death  God;  God  G,  the  Sun  God. 

powers  are  usually  to  be  identified  by  death  symbols 
such  as  a  bare  bone  for  the  lower  jaw,  or  the  percentage 
symbol  noted  above  on  the  cheek.  Death  heads  of 
several  kinds  are  frequent  in  the  hieroglyphic  inscrip- 
tions. 

The  Maize  God,  figured  so  frequently  on  the  ancient 
^tnonuments  and  in  the  Mayan  codices  may  be  the  same 
that  in  the  time  of  the  Conquest  was  called jfumjCaax, 
Lord  of  the  Harvest.  He  is  represented  as  aTyouth  with 
a  leafy  headdress  that  is  possibly  meant  to  represent  an 
opening  ear  of  maize.  The  kan  sign,  a  grain  of  maize, 
is  constantly  associated  with  him.  He  appears  to  be  at 


Plate  XVII.  (a)  The  Upper  Portion  of  Stela  1  at  Yaxchilan, 
dealing  with  the  Heavens.  The  Sky  God  is  seen  in  the  center  with 
the  moon  at  the  left  and  the  sun  god -at  the  right.  Below  these  is 
the  Two-Headed  Monster  bearing  planet  signs  and  additional  heads 
of  the  Sky  God;  (6)  Analogous  Detail  of  Stela  4,  Yaxchilan.  The 
moon  is  at  the  right  and  the  sun  at  the  left.  The  figure  in  the  sun 
is  male  and  that  in  the  moon,  female.  The  faces  of  the  Sky  God 
hang  from  the  lower  part  of  the  Two-Headed  Dragon,  being  attached 
to  it  by  symbols  of  the  planet  Venus. 

95 


90  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

the  mercy  of  the  evil  deities  when  not  protected  by  the 
good  ones.  J 

Space  considerations  forbid  a  further  study  of  Mayan 
gods.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  several  other  divinities  are 
shown  in  the  sculptures  and  codices  including  a  some- 
what youthful  appearing  war  god,  as  well  as  a  more 
mature  and  grotesque  war  god  called  Ek  Ahau,  the 
Black  Captain.  There  is  an  old  god  with  a  shell 
attached  to  his  body,  a  god  with  the  face  of  a  monkey 
who  is  associated  with  the  north  star,  a  god  in  the  form 
of  a  frog  and  another  in  the  form  of  a  bat.  In  the 
Spanish  accounts  we  can  also  glean  scanty  information 
concerning  Ixchel,  Goddess  of  the  Rainbow  and  mate  of 
Itzamna,  Ixtubtun  patroness  of  jade  carvers,  Ixchebel- 
yax,  patroness  of  the  art  of  weaving  and  decorating 
cloth,  etc. 

The  Mayan  Time  Counts.  The  passage  of  time, 
seen  in  finer  and  finer  degree  in  the  course  of  human 
life,  the  succession  of  summer  and  winter,  the  waxing 
and  waning  moons,  the  alternation  of  day  and  night, 
the  upward  and  downward  sloping  of  the  sun  and  the 
swinging  dial  of  the  stars,  is  a  phenomenon  that  no 
human  group  has  failed  to  notice.  Longer  periods  than 
those  included  within  the  memory  of  the  oldest  men 
(presenting  an  imperfect  reflection  of  the  memory  of 
men  still  older)  are  found  only  in  those  favored  centers 
where  a  serviceable  system  of  counting  had  been  de- 
veloped. Mythology  has  a  content  of  history  but 
hardly  of  chronology.  Tradition,  when  organized  by 
the  priesthood,  may  be  reasonably  dependable  for  per- 
haps two  hundred  years. 

The  year  and  the  month  are  the  basis  of  all  primitive 
time  systems,  the  former  depending  on  the  recurring 
seasons,  the  latter  on  recurring  moons.  Both  of  these 
are  expressed  in  days.  Unfortunately,  the  day  is  not 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  J/  97 

contained  evenly  in  either  the  month  or  the  year,  nor 
do  these  larger  time  measures  show  any  simple  relation 
to  each  other  as  regards  length.  The  history  of  the 
calendar  is  one  of  compromise  and  correction. 

The  Mayan  calendars  were  made  possible  by:  first, 
the  knowledge  of  astronomical  time  periods ;  second,  the 
possession  of  a  suitable  notation  system;  third,  the  dis- 
covery of  a  permutation  system  of  names  and  numbers. 

Elements  of  the  Day  Count.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  the  Mayas  had  first  a  lunar  calendar  of 
twelve  months  of  thirty  days  each,  making  a  year  of 
360  days,  and  that  they  modified  this  so  that  the  num- 
ber of  days  in  the  "month"  became  twenty  instead  of 
thirty  to  agree  with  the  value  of  the  second  digit  in 
their  notation  system  and  that  the  number  of  months 
was  increased  from  twelve  to  eighteen,  still  making  up  a 
total  of  360  days  which  agreed  with  the  value  of  the 
third  digit.  With  a  truer  knowledge  of  the  length  of 
the  year  an  extra  five  day  month  was  added  to  make 
a  year  of  365  days.  Beyond  this  the  "leap  year"  error 
was  calculated  but  not  interpolated.  As  proof  that  the 
lunar  month  of  thirty  days  preceded  the  notation 
month  of  twenty  days,  it  need  only  be  pointed  out  that 
the  name  for  this  period,  uinal,  seems  to  be  connected 
with  the  name  for  moon,  u,  and  that  the  hieroglyph 
for  moon  has  the  value,  twenty,  in  the  inscriptions 
and  ancient  books. 

/  Before  entering  into  a  fuller  discussion  of  the  astro- 
nomical and  notational  facts  let  us  turn  for  a  moment 
to  the  third  fact,  the  permutation  system.  The  origin 
of  the  cycle1  known  by  the  Nahuan  name  tonalamatl, 

1  The  word  cycle  is  applied  in  this  book  to  re-entering  series,  or 
wheels,  of  days.  These  all  contain  the  ionalamatl  without  a  remainder. 
The  word  period  is  applied  to  fixed  numbers  that  do  not  contain  the 
tonalamatl.  Unfortunately,  the  word  cycle  is  also  applied  to  the  fifth  digit 
or  position  in  the  notation  system  and  the  word  period  is  used  as  a  general 
designation  for  any  digit  or  position  as  well  as  for  other  fixed  values. 


98 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


book    of    the    days,    has    never    been    satisfactorily 
explained.      It    is    a    permutation    system    with    two 


Fig.  37.  The  Twenty  Day  Signs  of  the  Mayan  Month.  The 
first  example  in  each  case  is  taken  from  the  inscriptions  and  the  second 
from  the  codices. 

factors,  13  and  20.     The  former  is  a  series  of  numbers 
(1-13)  and  the  latter  a  series  of  twenty  names  as  follows : — 


1.  Imix 
2.  Ik 
3.  Akbal 
4.  Kan 
5.  Chicchan 

6.  Cimi 
7.  Manik 
8.  Lamat 
9.  Muluc 
10.  Oc 

11.  Chuen 
12.  Eb 
13.  Ben 
14.  Ix 
15.  Men 

16.  Gib 
17.  Caban 
18.  Eznab 
19.  Cauac 
20.  Ahau 

These  two  series  revolve  upon  each  other  like  two  wheels, 
one  with  thirteen  and  the  other  with  twenty  cogs.  The 
smaller  wheel  of  numbers  makes  twenty  revolutions 
while  the  larger  wheel  of  days  is  making  thirteen  revolu- 
tions, and  after  this  the  number  cog  and  name  cog  with 
which  the  experiment  began  are  again  in  combination. 
Thus,  a  day  with  the  same  number  and  the  same  name 
recurs  every  13x20  or  260  days. 

This  260  day  cycle  corresponds  to  no  natural  time 
period  and  is  an  invention  pure  and  simple.  It  is  the 
most  fundamental  feature  of  the  Mayan  time  count  and 
of  the  time  counts  of  other  nations  in  Mexico  and 
Central  America.  We  may  perhaps  assume  that  the 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION 


99 


twenty  names  were  originally  those  of  the  twenty  days 
in  the  modified  lunar  months.  But  the  thirteen  num- 
bers have  no  recognized  prototype.  The  formal  ton- 
alamatl  is  generally  considered  to  begin  with  1  Imix  for 
the  Mayas  and  with  a  corresponding  day  for  the  other 
Mexican  and  Central  American  nations.  But  it  can 
be  made  to  begin  anywhere  and  proceed  to  an  equiva- 
lent station  that  is  always  260  days  removed. 
TONALAMATL  TABLE 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

1 

1  Imix  

1 

8 

9 

q 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

19 

<> 

13 

7 

1 

2  Ik  

?, 

9 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

19 

6 

13 

7 

1 

8 

?, 

3  Akbal 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

19 

6 

13 

7 

1 

8 

9 

q 

3 

4  Kan  

4 

11 

5 

19 

6 

13 

7 

1 

8 

9 

q 

3 

10 

4 

5  Chicchan 

5 

19- 

6 

13 

7 

1 

8 

9 

q 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

6  Cimi 

6 

13 

7 

1 

8 

9 

q 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

19 

6 

7  Manik 

7 

1 

8 

2 

q 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

19 

6 

13 

7 

8  Lamat 

8 

9 

q 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

1? 

6 

13 

7 

1 

8 

9  Muluc 

9 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

19 

6 

13 

7 

1 

8 

2 

9 

10  Oc 

10 

4 

11 

5 

19 

6 

13 

7 

1 

8 

9 

q 

3 

10 

11  Chuen 

11 

5 

19 

(> 

13 

7 

1 

8 

?, 

q 

3 

10 

4 

11 

12  Eb 

13 

6 

13 

7 

1 

8 

?, 

q 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

1?, 

13  Ben 

13 

7 

1 

8 

9 

q 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

19 

6 

13 

14  Ix 

1 

8 

9 

q 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

19 

6 

13 

7 

1 

15  Men 

2 

q 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

1? 

6 

13 

7 

1 

8 

9 

16  Gib 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

19 

6 

13 

7 

1 

8 

9 

q 

3 

17  Caban 

4 

11 

5 

1? 

6 

13 

7 

1 

8 

2 

q 

3 

10 

4 

18  Eznab 

5 

1? 

6 

13 

7 

1 

8 

9 

q 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

19  Cauac           

6 

13 

7 

1 

8 

?, 

q 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

19 

6 

20  Ahau  

7 

1 

8 

2 

9 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

12 

6 

13 

7 

The  Conventional  Year.  It  has  been  stated  that 
the  May  as  arrived  at  a  conventional  365  day  year  made  up 
of  eighteen  months  of  twenty  days  each  plus  a  short  peri- 
od of  five  days  that  fell  after  the  eighteen  regular  months 
had  been  counted.  The  Mayan  month  names  are  as 
follows  :- 


1.  Pop 

2.  Uo 

3.  Zip 

4.  Zotz 

5.  Tzec 

6.  Xul 


19. 


7.  Yaxkin  13.  Mac 

8.  Mol  14.  Kankin 

9.  Chen  15.  Muan 

10.  Yax  16.  Pax 

11.  Zac  17.  Kayab 

12.  Ceh  18.  Cumhu 
Uayeb  (five  additional  days) 


100 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


Since  there  are  twenty  days  or  positions  in  the  month 
and  likewise  twenty  distinct  day  names  in  the  tonalamatl 
that  fall  in  regular  order  it  follows  that  each  day  would 
always  occupy  the  same  month  position  were  it  not  for 


Kayab 


TTayeb 


Fig.  38.  The  Nineteen  Month  Signs  of  the  Mayan  Year.  The 
first  example  in  each  case  is  taken  from  the  inscriptions  and  the 
second  from  the  codices.  The  last  details  are  signs  for  zero. 

the  offset  at  the  end  of  each  year  caused  by  the  short 
Uayeb  period.  As  it  is,  any  day  name  occupies  the  same 
position  during  the  course  of  an  entire  year  and  a  position 
five  days  in  advance  during  the  course  of  the  following 
year.  Since  five  is  contained  four  times  in  twenty  there 
can  be  only  four  shifts :  the  fifth  year  showing  the  same 
arrangement  as  the  first.  The  following  table  gives  the 
month  positions  of  each  day  name  during  the  changes  of 
four  consecutive  years  as  these  are  recorded  in  the 
ancient  inscriptions. 

Ik,  Manik,  Eb,  Caban  0,  5,  10, 15 

Akbal,  Lamat,  Ben,  Eznab  1,  6, 11, 16 

Kan,  Muluc,  Ix,  Cauac  2,  7, 12, 17 

Chicchan,  Oc,  Men,  Ahau  3,  8, 13,  18 

Imix,  Cimi,  Chuen,  Gib  4,  9, 14, 19 

Thus  Ik  occupies  0  position  the  first  year,  5,  the  second 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  101 

year,  10  the  third,  15  the  fourth,  and  0  the  fifth.  While 
Manik  that  belongs  to  the  same  set  has  position  5  the 
first  year,  10  the  second,  etc.  It  will  be  noted  that  Imix, 
the  first  day  of  the  formal  tonalamatl  is  never  the  first 
day  of  a  month. 

The  Calendar  Round.  But  this  assignment  of 
particular  day  names  to  particular  places  in  the  month  does 
not  close  the  problem.  Each  day  name  is  associated  in 
the  tonalamatl  with  a  day  number.  While  it  is  true  that 
each  day  can  occupy  only  four  month  places  of  as  many 
years,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  day  numbers  as- 
sociated with  these  names  can  run^  the  whole  gamut  of  13 
changes.  The  result  of  this  permutation  is  that  a  par- 
ticular day  with  a  particular  number  can  occupy  a  par- 
ticular month  position  once  every  13x4  or  52  years.  In 
other  words,  the  cycle  of  variations  runs  through  the  least 
common  multiple  of  260  (the  tonalamatl)  and  365  (the 
conventional  year)  or  18,980  days.  This  cycle  is  com- 
monly known  as  the  Calendar  Round. 

A  Mayan  day  fixed  in  a  month  has  four  parts  to  its 
name,  thus,  11  Ahau  18  Mac.  But  after  all  this  condi- 
tion of  affairs  is  not  very  different  from  our  own.  We 
say  Tuesday,  July  4,  and  we  mean,  "  Tuesday,  the 
second  day  of  the  week,  falls  on  the  fourth  day  of 
the  month  of  July."  Similarly  the  Mayan  date  11 
Ahau  18  Mac  may  be  read,  "The  day  Ahau,  bearing 
the  index  number  11  (or,  being  the  eleventh  day  in  the 
thirteen  day  week)  is  found  in  the  18th  position  in  the 
month  Mac. ' '  Were  it  not  for  leap  year  the  European 
date  given  above  would  recur  after  seven  years:  as  it  is, 
the  cycle  is  somewhat  irregular  and  no  actual  use  is 
made  of  it.  So  far  we  have  considered  two  sorts  of 
Mayan  dates,  first  the  tonalamatl  date,  recurring 
every  260  days,  second  the  calendar  round  date  recur- 
ring every  18,980  days. 


P~f''/P 
t-siSS^  •*•• ' 


Plate  XVIII.  Scheme  of  the  Mayan  Calendar  as  presented  in 
the  Codex  Tro-Cortesianus.  In  the  center  is  Itzamna,  the  God  of 
the  Sky,  and  his  spouse,  under  what  has  been  called  the  celestial  tree. 
The  band  of  hieroglyphs  that  frames  in  this  picture  contains  the 
twenty  day  signs  of  the  Mayan  month.  The  figures  on  the  outside 
are  arranged  in  four  groups,  according  to  the  four  directions  of  the 
compass.  At  the  top  or  east  we  again  see  Itzamna  and  his  mate.  In 
the  north,  or  right  hand  quarter,  human  sacrifice  is  shown  and  the 
Death  God  sits  opposite  the  God  of  War.  In  the  east  and  in  the 
south  are  also  shown  pairs  of  divinities.  A  series  of  dots  running 
from  one  day  sign  to  another  covers  the  tonalamatl  or  260  day  cycle 
of  names  and  numbers. 


102 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  103 

Mayan  Numbers.  We  will  now  see  how  the  record 
of  the  days  is  written  down  in  actual  symbols.  Mayan 
numbers  are  most  commonly  represented  by  bars  and 
dots,  the  bars  counting  five  and  the  dots  one.  The  no- 


125  &  d  10  18 

Fig.  39.     Bar  and  Dot  Numerals  of  the  Mayas. 

tation  is  based  for  the  most  part  upon  twenties  rather 
than  upon  tens  and  each  digit,  if  this  term  can  be  applied 
to  figures  that  run  from  0  to  19,  may  consist  of  several 
bars  and  dots  arranged  in  a  group.  Ascending  values 
may  be  expressed  by  position,  one  above  the  other,  or  by 
so-called  period  glyphs  which  stand  beside  each  group  of 
bars  and  dots  and  represent  the  multiplier. 

In  our  decimal  system  the  number  347,981,  for  in- 
stance, is  really: — 

3  x  100000 
4x  10000 
7  x  1000 
9x  100 
8x  10 
Ix  1 

When  written  out  in  a  horizontal  line  each  "position" 
has  a  value  ten  times  that  of  the  "position"  to  the  right 
of  it.  It  is  understood  that  a  digit  which  stands  in  a 
"position  "is  to  be  multiplied  by  1, 10, 100, 1000,  etc.,  as 
the  case  may  be. 

Now  in  a  system  of  notation  based  entirely  upon  twen- 
ties the  ascending  values  are  1, 20, 400, 8000, 160,000,  etc. 
Such  a  system  was  probably  used  by  the  Mayas  for  ordi- 
nary commercial  purposes.  But  in  the  counting  of  days 
a  slight  change  was  made,  in  that  the  third  "position" 


104  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

was  only  eighteen  times  the  preceding  one  instead  of 
twenty  times,  or  360  instead  of  400.  The  360  was  prob- 
ably adopted  because  it  comes  within  five  days  of  the 
length  of  the  year.  After  this  change  the  ascending  val- 
ues are  1,  20,  360,  7,200,  and  144,000.  A  Mayan  number 
can  be  written  conveniently  in  imitation  of  our  own 
system  by  marking  dashes  between  the  ' '  positions ' '  or 
periods.  The  long  number  that  is  set  down  as  follows 
9-12-16-7-8,  equals:— 

9  x  144000  1,296,000 

12  x  7200  86,400 

16  X  360  5,760 

7  x          20  140 

8x            1  8 


1,388,308 

days  in  the  decimal  system.  In  speaking  of  such  a  num- 
ber, however,  names  would  be  applied  to  the  periods, 

thus:— 

Cycle  144000  days 

Katun  7200  days 

Tun  360  days 

Uinal  20  days 

Kin  1  day 

The  number  given  above  would  be  read  9  cycles,  12 
katuns,  16  tuns,  7  uinals,  and  8  kins.  It  is  convenient 
to  remember  that  a  tun  is  a  little  less  than  a  year,  a 
katun,  a  little  less  than  twenty  years,  and  a  cycle  a  little 
less  than  four  hundred  years.  r 

./The  True  Year.  So  far  we  have  been  concerned 
primarily  with  the  counting  of  days — the  rs^onomical 
time  unit  determined  by  the  revolution  of  Lrie  earth  up- 
on its  axis.  Now,  although  the  day  is  not  contained 
evenly  in  the  other  astronomical  time  periods  (the 
month,  the  year,  and  the  apparent  revolutions  of  the 
planets)  the  Mayan  scholars  made  some  remarkable 
correlations  of  the  heterogeneous  data. 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION 


105 


The  year  is  determined  by  the  revolution  of  the  earth 
around  the  sun  and  by  the  recurring  seasons.  No  agri- 
cultural people  could  neglect  this  time  period  with  its 


Fig.  40.  Face  Numerals  found  in  Mayan  Inscriptions.  In 
most  cases  these  are  the  faces  of  gods.  Reading  from  left  to 
right:  the  values  are  1,  3,  4,  5,  6,  9,  10. 


Fig.  41.     The  Normal  Forms  of  the  Period  Glyphs.     Reading 
from  left  to  right:  cycle,  katun,  tun,  uinal,  kin. 


Fig.  42.     Face  Forms  of  Period  Glyphs.     From  left  to  right: 
introducing  glyph,  cycle,  katun,  tun,  uinal,  kin. 

obvious  relation  to  planting  and  harvest.  Reference 
has  already  been  made  to  the  notational  360  day  year 
(tun)  an  1  to. the  conventional  365  day  year  (haab).  The 
statement-  TS  then  made  that  the  Mayas  made  a  cor- 
rection for  tL'e  excess  of  the  true  year  over  the  con- 
ventional 365  day  year.  The  excess  amounts  to  about 
.24  of  a  day  and  their  correction  seems  to  have  been  one 
day  in  four  years  for  ordinary  purposes  and  25  days  in 
104  years  over  longer  stretches  of  time.  This  latter 
correction  is  more  accurate  than  was  that  of  the  Julian 


Introducing  Glyph- 


ISJ 


Initial  Series 

1.  9  cycles  <£    ;//.    k*.  #  11. 

2.  14  katuns 

3.  13  tuns  (written  12  by  error) 

4.  4  uinals 

5.  17  kins 

6.  12  Caban  (day) 


Supplementary  Series 

7.  glyph  F 

8.  (a)  glyph  D,  (b)  glyph  C 

9.  (a)  glyph  X,  (b)  glyph  B 

10.     (a)  glyph  A  (30  day  lunar  month) 

10.  (b)  5  Kayab  (month) 

Explanatory  Series 

11,  12,  13  and  14a,  possibly  explain  the  dates 

Secondary  Series 
14b,  3  kins,  13  uinals 
15a,  6  tuns  (to  be  added) 

Period  Ending  Date 
16.    4  Ahau  13  Yax  (9-15-0-0-0) 


Plate  XIX.    Typical  Mayan  Inscription. 


TEH 


106 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  107 

calendar  and  nearly  as  accurate  as  that  of  the  present 
Gregorian  calendar  put  into  service  as  late  as  1582. 

The  true  length  of  the  year  was  probably  obtained  by 
observations  of  sunrise  or  sunset  on  summer  or  winter 
solstices.  From  some  fixed  point  of  observation,  such 
as  the  doorway  of  a  temple,  the  extreme  point  on  the 
horizon  reached  by  the  sun  in  its  northward  or  south- 
ward march  could  be  accurately  determined.  Over  a 
period  of  years  the  average  solstitial  period  (tropical 
year)  could  be  readily  obtained  if  only  the  days  were 
recorded  and  the  intervals  compared. 

Although  we  ourselves  depend  mostly  upon  the  year 
count  rather  than  the  day  count  we  must  remember 
that  the  annual  calendar  was  only  one  of  several  that 
the  Mayas  brought  into  relation  to  the  inviolable  count 
of  days.  The  lunar  and  Venus  calendars  will  be  con- 
sidered presently.  But  if  the  "leap  year"  days  were 
not  interpolated,  of  course,  the  named  months  had 
no  fixed  positions  in  the  year  but  swung  slowly  round  the 
circle.  According  to  the  table  of  Landa,  compiled 
about  1566,  the  month  Pop,  which  seems  to  have  been 
regarded  as  the  first  of  the  year  in  ancient  as  well  as 
modern  times,  began  on  July  16  O.S.  Outside  of  the 
Mayan  area  the  retrogression  of  the  months  is  attested 
by  actual  statements  of  early  Spanish  writers.  But  the 
conventional  365  day  year  was,  after  all,  sufficiently 
accurate  to  serve  the  needs  of  agriculturists  and  since 
retrogression  was  only  about  one  day  in  four  years, 
associations  between  the  months  and  the  seasons  would 
hold  true  for  the  average  lifetime. 

The  Lunar  Calendar.  The  revolution  of  the  moon 
around  the  earth  was  used  by  the  Mayas  in  what  may  be 
called  the  lunar  calendar.  It  has  already  been  ex- 
plained that  an  early  lunar  period  of  thirty  days  seems 


108 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


to  have  been  arbitrarily  changed  to  a  notational  one  of 
twenty  days.  Now  the  exact  duration  of  a  lunar  revo- 
lution is  29  days,  12  hours,  44  minutes,  2.87  seconds.  If 
the  customary  period  of  29.5  days  is  taken  for  con- 
venience there  is  an  error  of  about  two  full  days  in  five 
years.  Such  an  error  was  too  great  to  pass  the  Mayan 
calendar  makers.  On  pages  51  to  58  of  the  Dresden 


Fig.  43.  Representations  of  the  Moon:  a,  sun  and  moon 
hieroglyphs;  b,  moon  from  a  "celestial  band";  c,  moon  hiero- 
glyph used  for  20  in  codices. 

Codex  their  solution  is  recorded  unmistakably.  A  suc- 
cession of  405  lunar  revolutions,  or  nearly  33  years  is 
calculated  by  the  addition  of  groups  of  five  and  six  revo- 
lutions, the  former  given  as  148  days  and  the  latter  as 
either  177  or  178  days.  This  method  of  calculation 
may  have  been  a  device  to  carry  fractions  or  it  may  have 
been  based  upon  ecliptic  data.  The  steps  of  the  calcu- 
lations are  put  down  in  a  sort  of  double  entry,  first  by 
numbers,  second  by  named  days.  The  numbers  add  up 
to  11,958  while  the  total  difference  between  the  named 
days  is  11,959.  The  purpose  appears  to  have  been  to 
approximate  11,960.  This  last  number  of  days  con- 
tains the  tonalamatl  an  even  number  of  times  and 
would  thus  form  a  re-entering  series  since  it  would  al- 
ways begin  with  the  same  day.  Now  it  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  the  total  obtained  by  modern  astronomers  for 
405  lunar  revolutions  is  11,959.888  days  or  only  0.112  of 
a  day  less  than  11,960.  Therefore,  this  re-entering  series 
of  the  Mayan  astronomers  can  be  used  nine  times  be- 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION 


109 


fore  an  error  amounting  to  one  whole  day  has  accumu- 
lated. In  other  words,  the  lunar  calendar  was  brought 
into  a  fixed  relation  with  the  day  count  with  an  error  of 
one  day  in  300  years. 

On  the  monuments  a  more  or  less  orderly  group  of 
hieroglyphs  following  the  Initial  Series  has  been  called 
the  Supplementary  Series.  Several  of  these  hiero- 
glyphs contain  the  symbol  for  the  moon  and  the  last 
one  contains  this  symbol  with  the  numerals  9  or  10  to 
the  right  or  below.  It  has  been  suggested  that  this 


Fig.  44.  The  Last  Glyph  of  the  Supplementary  Series:  a,  moon 
glyph;  combined  with  the  numeral  9  or  10  to  indicate  a  29  or  a  30 
day  lunar  month. 

last  glyph  stands  for  a  29  or  30  day  month,  as  the  case 
may  be,  and  that  the  Supplementary  Series  records 
the  position  of  the  Initial  Series  date  in  a  lunar  count. 

The  Venus  Calendar.  The  Mayan  astronomers 
possessed  a  remarkable  knowledge  of  the  movements  of 
the  planets.  In  particular  the  apparent  revolution  of 
the  planet  Venus  was  used  as  the  basis  of  what  we  may 
call  the  Venus  Calendar.  The  mean  synodical  year  of 
Venus  (nearly  584  days)  is  divided  in  the  Mayan  books 
into  four  parts  of  236  days  (morning  star),  90  days 
(superior  conjunction),  250  days  (evening  star),  and 
8  days  (inferior  conjunction).  It  is  true  that  these 
divisions  do  not  agree  very  closely  with  the  actual  divi- 
sions of  the  Venus  year  but  we  must  remember  that  the 
observations  were  made  without  instruments,  that  the 
planet  cannot  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye  when  close  to 


110  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

the  sun,  and  that  it  appears  much  smaller,  because 
farther  from  the  earth,  when  near  the  superior  con- 
junction. Moreover,  we  must  expect  beliefs  as  to  the 
nature  of  this  planet,  personified  as  a  god,  to  supple- 
ment the  knowledge  gained  from  actual  observations. 

The  agreement  in  length  between  8  solar  years  of 
365  days  each  and  5  Venus  years  of  584  days  each  was 
recognized  and  used  in  ceremonies  and  calculations.  On 
the  five  pages  of  the  Dresden  Codex,  numbered  46-50, 
is  presented  a  series  of  5  Venus  years  amounting  in  all  to 
2920  days.  On  page  24  (see  PL  XX)  of  the  same  codex 
we  find  this  sum  taken  13  times  to  make  37,960  days  and 
then  this  last  number  taken  4  times  to  make  151,840 
days.  The  number  2920  (5  x  584  and  8  x  365)  has  a 
definite  relation  to  the  tonalamatl  which  results  from 
the  following  coincidence:  260  and  584  have  a  com- 
mon factor  of  4.  It  therefore  follows  that  when  groups 
of  584  days  are  counted  consecutively  along  with  the 
twenty  named  days  in  the  standard  tonalamatl,  these 
groups  of  584  days  can  begin  on  only  five  different  days. 
The  sixth  period  is  introduced  by  the  same  named  day 
as  the  first  but  this  named  day  is  associated  with  a 
different  number.  The  same  named  day  combined 
with  the  same  number  recurs  in  13x2920  or  37,960  days. 
This  round  of  the  Venus  calendar  (65  Venus  years  of 
584  days  and  104  solar  years  of  365  days)  equals  exactly 
two  rounds  of  the  solar  calendar. 

But  there  is  an  important  correction  that  has  to 
be  made  to  keep  the  actual  solar  calendar  in  accord 
with  the  actual  Venus  calendar.  The  solar  year  is  really 
365.24  days  in  length  and  we  have  seen  that  this  error 
was  corrected 'by  a  marginal  addition  of  25  days  in  104 
years.  The  mean  Venus  year  is  really  583.92  or  .08  of  a 
day  less  than  584.  The  actual  position  of  Venus  will 
therefore  run  ahead  of  its  calendrical  position  and  there 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  111 

is  reason  to  believe  that  a  marginal  subtraction  amount- 
ing to  two  days  in  25  revolutions  was  made. 

On  Stela  K  at  Quirigua  (a  cast  of  this  monument  is 
exhibited  in  the  American  Museum)  we  find  what  ap- 
pears to  be  an  effort  to  calculate  the  errors  of  the  differ- 
ent calendars.  The  introducing  glyph  contains  the  sym- 
bol of  Venus  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  calculations 
deal  in  part  with  the  movements  of  this  planet.  The 
initial  series  records  the  end  of  an  even  5  tun  period 
(9-18-15-0-0)  in  the  notation  system  but  the  number 
(1,431,000  days)  equals  3920  years  of  365  days  each  plus 
200  days.  On  the  basis  of  * ' five  to  eight ' '  the  3920  solar 
calendar  years  equal  2950  revolutions  of  Venus  and  allow- 
ing an  error  of  .08  of  a  day  per  revolution  the  total  error 
amounts  to  196  days.  This  very  nearly  equals  the  200 
days  counted  in  advance  of  the  3920  solar  calendar 
years.  The  Mayan  scholars  seem  to  have  observed  the 
fact  that  counting  from  the  original  4  Ahau  8  Cumhu  up 
to  their  own  times,  the  actual  position  of  Venus  practi- 
cally coincided  with  the  end  of  a  5  tun  period  when  it 
should  have  coincided  with  the  end  of  3920  solar  calendar 
years.  This  supposition  is  made  more  credible  by  evi- 
dence that  the  error  in  the  solar  calendar  from  the  same 
beginning  day  was  also  calculated  here.  From  the 
Initial  Series  date,  which  leads  to  3  Ahau  3  Yax,  10  uinals 
and  10  kins  (210  days)  are  subtracted  and  the  day  1  Oc 
18  Kayab  is  reached.  Then  follows  the  Supplementary 
Series  which  doubtless  refers  to  the  lunar  count  and  im- 
mediately after  this  comes  the  unusual  number  0  uinals 
0  kins — that  is,  nothing.  Next  the  day  3  Ahau  3  Yax  is 
repeated,  thus:— 

9-18-15-  0-0  3  Ahau  3  Yax 

10-10  backward 

9-18-14-  7-10  1  Oc  18  Kayab 

0-  0  forward 

9-18-15-  0-0  3  Ahau  3  Yax 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

Now  it  appears  that  some  sort  of  an  equation  is  intend- 
ed by  this  subtraction  of  210  days  and  the  subsequent 
addition  of  zero  days  to  arrive  again  at  the  point  of  de- 
parture. The  error  due  to  the  omission  of  the  extra 
"leap  year"  day  would  amount  to  two  full  years  plus 
210  days  in  the  time  covered  by  the  Initial  Series.  The 
two  full  years  could  be  dropped  from  the  calculation  and 
the  210  days  would  show  the  apparent  displacement  of 
the  sun  from  its  assumed  calendrical  position.  Of 
course,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  for  an  instant  that  the 
Mayas  had  kept  an  actual  record  of  the  movements  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  for  4000  years.  They  probably 
based  their  original  point  of  departure — the  day  4  Ahau 
8  Cumhu — upon  some  calculated  correlation  which  after- 
wards proved  to  be  slightly  erroneous.  With  a  clearer 
understanding  of  the  length  of  the  year  and  of  the  revo- 
lution of  Venus  they  may  have  attempted  on  this  monu- 
ment to  record  the  accumulated  error  on  theoretical 
rather  than  actual  grounds^x^ 

Hieroglyphs.  Mayan  hieroglyphs  resemble  the 
Egyptian  and  Chinese  hieroglyphs  only  in  being  ' '  sacred 
writing"  that  is  not  based  upon  an  alphabet.  The 
styles  and  symbols  are  entirely  different.  No  Rosetta 
Stone  has  yet  been  discovered  to  give  us  inscriptions  in 
more  than  one  system  of  writing  in  Central  America. 
The  great  use  of  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  on  monuments 
was  characteristic  of  the  earlier  period  of  Mayan  history 
and  at  a  later  time  the  writing  was  reduced  to  books. 
Landa  obtained  what  he  supposed  was  a  Mayan  alphabet, 
btit  what  he  really  obtained  was  a  list  of  word  signs  con- 
taining among  other  sounds  the  particular  sounds  he 
desired. 

/  The  phonetic  use  of  syllables  rather  than  of  simple 
sounds  or  letters  is  probably  an  important  feature  of 
Mayan  writing.  Many  hieroglyphs  are  pictographic 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  113 

arid  consist  of  abbreviated  pictures  of  the  thing  intended 
or  of  some  object  connected  with  it.  Often  a  head 
stands  for  the  entire  body.  The  following  list  practi- 
cally exhausts  our  knowledge  of  Mayan  hieroglyphs:— 

1 .  The  20  day  signs  which  occur  in  variant  forms  in  the 
inscriptions  and  codices. 

2.  The  19  month  signs. 

3.  The  face  signs  for  numbers  from  zero  to  19. 

4.  The  "period  glyphs"  which  represent  1,  20,  360, 
7,200,  and  144,000  days. 

5.  The  symbols  for  the  four  directions  and  possibly  for 
the  four  colors  associated  with  them. 

6.  The  hieroglyphs  of  several  gods  mostly  from  the 
codices. 

7.  The  symbols  of  the  sun,  moon,  Venus,  North  Star, 
and  perhaps  other  heavenly  bodies. 

8.  A  few  more  or  less  realistic  hieroglyphs  representing 
natural  objects. 

Of  this  brief  list  many  signs  connected  with  the  cal- 
endar are  given  by  Landa  and  other  signs  have  been 
worked  out  by  means  of  the  mathematical  calculations 
in  the  codices  and  inscriptions  which  are  capable  of  groof . 

We  may  expect  to  find  in  the  Mayan  inscriptions  some 
hieroglyphs  that  give  the  names  of  individuals,  cities, 
and  political  divisions  and  others  that  represent  feasts, 
sacrifices,  tribute,  and  common  objects  of  trade  as  well 
as  signs  referring  to  birth,  death,  establishment,  conquest, 
destruction,  and  other  fundamentals  of  individual  and 
social  existence.  These  signs  taken  with  directive  signs 
and  dates  would  make  possible  records  of  considerable 
accuracy.  There  seems  to  be  no  possibility  of  purely 
literary  inscriptions.  While  progress  will  necessarily  be 
slow  there  is  no  reason  for  despair  and  without  doubt  the 
greater  portion  of  Mayan  inscriptions  will  finally  be  de- 
ciphered. 


114 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


As  an  example  of  the  phonetic  use  of  signs  in  the  build- 
ing up  of  hieroglyphs  let  us  take  the  common  sign  kin, 
meaning  "sun."  This  sign  appears  regularly  in  the 
glyphs  for  the  world  directions  east  and  west,  the  Mayan 
names  being  likin  and  chikin  and  also  in  the  month  sign 


Sout 


Fig.  45.     Hieroglyphs  of  the  Four  Directions:  East,  North,  West, 


Fig.  46.     Hieroglyphs    containing  the    Phonetic    Element  kin: 
a-b,  kin;  c,  li-kin;  d,  chi-kin;  e-f,  y ax-kin;  g,  kan-kin. 

yaxkin,  and  sometimes  in  that  for  kankin.  It  also 
appears  as  the  sign  for  the  lowest  period  in  the  time  count 
having  the  value  of  a  single  day  and  called  kin.  The  sun 
sign  pure  and  simple  is  a  circle  with  four  notches  on  the 
inner  side.  The  beard  which  is  often  attached  to  the 
kin  sign  may  belong  to  the  face  of  the  sun  god.  This 
face  is  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  simple  kin 
sign  in  certain  positions.  All  the  words  so  far  considered 
contain  the  syllable  kin.  Now  this  kin  sign  also  appears 
in  many  undeciphered  hieroglyphs  and  in  some  of  these 
it  seems  likely  that  it  has  a  phonetic  value.  Other  signs 
with  definite  values  in  several  glyphs  are  yax,  tun,  zac, 
etc.  This  general  method  of  writing  is  seen  in  more  de- 
cipherable form  among  the  Aztecs.  The  glosses  of  the 
early  priests  that  have  proved  so  great  a  help  in  the  case 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  115 

of  the  Aztecan  writing  are  absent  from  the  few  Mayan 
documents. 

Codices.  Only  three  ancient  Mayan  books  or  cod- 
ices are  known  to  exist  and  thes^arelnore  or  less"  incom- 
plete. They  have  all  been  reproduced  in  facsimile  and 
are  known  by  the  following  names :  Dresden  Codex,  Pe- 
resianus  Codex,  Tro-Cortesianus  Codex. 

These  illuminated  manuscripts  are  written  on  both 
sides  of  long  strips  of  maguey  paper,  folded  like  Japanese 
screens.  The  paper  was  given  a  smooth  surface  by  a 
coating  of  fine  lime  and  the  drawings  were  made  in  black 
and  in  various  colors.  From  the  early  accounts  we  know 
that  books  were  also  written  on  prepared  deerskin  and 
upon  bark.  Concerning  their  subject  matter  we  are  told 
that  the  Mayas  had  many  books  upon  civil  and  religious 
history,  and  upon  rites,  magic,  and  medicine.  The  three 
books  named  above  have  been  carefully  studied.  They 
treat  principally  of  the  calendar  and  of  associated  relig- 
ious ceremonies. 

A  page  of  the  Dresden  Codex  containing  some  inter- 
esting calculations  is  reproduced  herewith .  The  numbers 
with  the  digits  one  above  the  other  are  transcribed  in  two 
diagrams.  In  the  upper  diagram  the  bar  and  dot  numer- 
als are  simply  put  over  into  Arabic  numerals  and  the 
Mayan  system  of  periods  or  positions  is  retained.  In 
the  lower  diagram  these  numbers  are  reduced  entirely  to 
the  Arabic  system.  The  columns  are  lettered  at  the  top, 
the  hieroglyphs  are  counted  off  in  sixteen  rows  at  the  left 
and  the  separate  groupings  of  numbers  are  shown  in  five 
sections  at  the  right. 

Among  the  hieroglyphs  the  Venus  sign  is  especially 
prominent.  At  the  base  of  B  is  given  a  number  in  five 
periods  that,  counted  from  the  normal  beginning  day  4 
Ahau  8  Cumhu,  leads  to  1  Ahau  18  Kayab.  This  day  is 
actually  recorded  immediately  under  the  number  and 


A         6        C         D        E          F  ,      G 


Plate  XX.     Page  24  Dresden  Codex. 

116 


1 

2 
3 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

1 
1 
14 
0 
1  Ahau 

15 
16 
6 
0 
1  Ahau 

10 
10 
16 
0 
1  Ahau 

5 
5 
8 
0 
1  Ahau 

Hieroglyphs 

1 

5 
14 
4 
0 
1  Ahau 

9 
11 
7 
0 
1  Ahau 

4 
12 
8 
0 
1  Ahau 

1 

5 
5 
0 
1  Ahau 

4 
17 
6 
0 
6  Ahau 

4 
9 

4 
0 
11  Ahau 

4 
1 
2 
0 
3  Ahau 

3 
13 
0 
0 
8  Ahau 

3 

4 
16 
0 
t3  Ahau 

2 
16 
14 
0 
5  Ahau 

2 
8 
12 
0 
10  Ahau 

2 
0 
10 

0 
2  Ahau 

9 
9 
16 
0 
0 

1  Ahau 
18  Kayab 

9 
9 
9 
16 
0 

1  Ahau 
18  Uo 

6 

2 
0 
4  Ahau 
8  Cumhu 

1 
12 
5  [8] 
0 

7  Ahau 

1 
4 
6 
0 

12  Ahau 

16 
4 
0 

4  Ahau 

8 
2 
0 

9  Ahau 

Diagram  showing  partial  reduction  of  Mayan  numbers  into  Arabic 
Numbers  in  the  calculation  shown  on  page  24  of  the  Dresden 
Codex  (Plate  XX.) 

B 


151,840 
1  Ahau 

113,880 
1  Ahau 

75,920 
1  Ahau 

37,960 
1  Ahau 

Hieroglyphs 

185,120 
1  Ahau 

68,900 
1  Ahau 

33,280 
1  Ahau 

9,100 
1  Ahau 

35,040 
6  Ahau 

32,120 
11  Ahau 

29,200 
3  Ahau 

26,280 
8  Ahau 

1,366,560 

1  Ahau 
18  Kayab 

1,364,360 

1  Ahau 
18  Uo 

23,360 
13  Ahau 

20,440 
5  Ahau 

17,520 
10  Ahau 

14,600 
2  Ahau 

2,200 

4  Ahau 
8  Cumhu 

11,680 
7  Ahau 

8,760 
12  Ahau 

5,840 
4  Ahau 

2,920 
9  Ahau 

Diagram  showing  complete  reduction  into  Arabic  numbers  of  the 
calculation  shown  on  page  24  of  the  Dresden  Codex  (Plate  XX). 


117 


118  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

possibly  refers  to  some  astronomical  event  or  discovery. 
In  column  C  the  long  number  does  not  lead  to  the  1  Ahau 
18  Uo  that  is  given  under  it.  This  date  is  reached  by 
other  calculations,  however.  At  the  base  of  A  is  a  num- 
ber, in  three  periods  which  amounts  to  2200.  Not  only 
is  this  the  difference  between  the  long  numbers  in  B  and 
C  (1,366,560-1,364,360-2200)  but,  if  we  proceed  for- 
ward 2200  days  from  the  date  given  in  B  we  arrive  at  a 
day  4  Ahau  8  Cumhu  recorded  under  the  number  in  A. 
In  other  words  this  number  of  days  carries  us  forward  to 
the  end  of  the  seventy-second  calendar  round  after  the 
original  4  Ahau  8  Cumhu  (72x18,980-1,366,560). 

Let  us  now  make  a  new  beginning  in  the  lower  left 
hand  corner  of  this  page.  In  G5  we  find  the  number 
2920  which  as  we  have  already  seen  is  exactly  the  number 
of  days  consumed  in  eight  years  of  365  days  or  five  syno- 
dic revolutions  of  Venus  of  584  days.  We  will  now  see 
how  the  Mayan  scholars  arrived  at  13  x  2920  or  37,960, 
the  calendar  round  of  Venus.  If  we  proceed  towards  the 
left  in  section  5  we  find  the  second  number,  F5,  is  5840 
which  equals  2x2920,  the  third  is  8760  or  3x2920, 
and  the  fourth  is  11,680  or  4x2920.  The  addition  is 
continued  in  sections  4  and  3  till  we  reach  35,040  or  12 
x  2920.  To  be  sure  the  scribe  made  a  slight  error  in  one 
place,  writing  a  5  for  an  8  but  this  is  caught  up  by  the 
day  signs  9  Ahau,  4  Ahau,  7  Ahau,  12  Ahau,  etc.,  that  fall 
at  regular  intervals  of  2920  days. 

From  section  3,  the  calculation  jumps  to  section  1 
where  the  numbers  in  the  original  are  partly  destroyed. 
They  have,  however,  been  restored  with  perfect  assur- 
ance since  the  days  in  all  instances  are  1  Ahau  and  there- 
fore must  be  separated  by  multiples  of  260  days.  The 
number  in  Gl  has  been  restored  as  5-5-8-0  or  37,960  or 
13x2920.  It  contains  260  an  even  number  of  times 
and  therefore  every  successive  period  of  37,960  days  be- 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  119 

gins  with  the  same  day,  1  Ahau.  It  also  equals  13x8 
x365  or  104  years  and  13x5x584  or  sixty-five  revo- 
lutions of  Venus. 

The  three  numbers  to  the  left  in  Fl,  El,  and  Dl  are 
respectively  2, 3,  and  4  times  37,960.  The  last  number, 
151,840  days  is  therefore  equal  to  416  years  or  exactly  8 
calendar  rounds  of  18,980  days. 


Fig.  47.  Mayan  Ceremony  as  represented  in  the  Dres- 
den Codex.  The  figure  at  the  left  beats  a  drum  while  the 
one  on  the  right  plays  a  flageolet.  The  sound  is  indicated 
by  scrolls.  The  head  on  the  pyramid  is  that  of  the  Maize 
God  and  it  rests  upon  the  sign  caban,  meaning  earth. 

The  numbers  in  section  2  are  more  difficult  to  explain 
but  they  possibly  have  to  do  with  corrections  and  correla- 
tions of  astronomical  periods.  If  we  add  to  1  Ahau  18 
Kayab  which  is  recorded  at  the  bottom  of  B  we  arrive  at 
a  day  1  Ahau  13  Mac.  This  day  is  prominent  in  more 
detailed  calculations  elsewhere  in  the  Dresden  Codex. 
If  we  add  to  the  same  1  Ahau  18  Kayab  the  number  in  E 
2  we  arrive  at  1  Ahau  18  Uo  recorded  at  the  bottom  of  C. 
Space  permits  no  further  explanation  but  the  reader  will 
see  from  the  foregoing  the*  method  of  experiment  and 
cross  checking  that  must  be  applied  to  the  decipherment 
of  the  Mayan  manuscripts.  Fortunately,  the  relation- 


1 

2 

5 

6 

9 

10 

13 

East 

* 

North 

* 

West 

* 

South 

Ill 

3 

4 

7 

8 

11 

12 

14 

God  B 

f 

Woman 

Good  Days 

God  G 

\ 

* 

13 

III                  13 

III                 13 

in 

15 

1 

God  E 

Akbal 

16 

2 

Week  of 
13  days 

Men 

17 

3 

God  B—  rain  and  sky 

Goddess  with  serpent 

God  K  —  benevolent 

Ahau 

Manik 

god  of  good  powers. 

'headdress  possibly  con- 

sun  god.     If 

space  had 

Ann/J,. 

been  larger  ' 

inrl     f    aho 

4 

sign  in  his  hand. 

Holds  Kan  sign  in  hand. 

maize  god)  would  prob- 

Cauac 

ably   have  been   drawn 

next. 

5 

Chuen 

13 

LOJ 

Plate  XXI.  (a)  Detail  of  the  Dresden  Codex  showing  Tonal- 
amatl  used  in  Divination;  (6)  Analysis  of  the  above  Tonalamatl, 
according  to  Forstemann. 

120 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION 

ships  of  numbers  are  absolute  and  the  coincidences 
between  the  recorded  numbers  and  astronomical  periods 
are  too  close  and  frequent  to  be  dismissed  as 
accidental. 

In  addition  to  rational  calculations  dealing  with  astron- 
omy one  sees  in  the  Mayan  manuscripts  many  arrange- 
ments of  the  tonalamatl  supposed  to  bring  to  light  good 
and  bad  days  and  to  forecast  events.  A  section  of  the 
Dresden  Codex  showing  a  condensed  tonalamatl  is  pre- 
sented along  with  a  diagram  of  its  parts.  At  the  top  and 
right  are  seventeen  hieroglyphs  containing  the  symbols 
of  the  four  directions,  and  of  at  least  three  of  the  principal 
gods.  At  the  right  is  a  column  of  five  day  signs  with  the 
number  3  at  the  head  of  the  column.  The  tonalamatl  is 
divided  into  five  parts  of  fifty-two  days  each  and  each 
part  is  subdivided  into  four  groups  of  three  days  each. 
It  begins  with  3  Akbal  the  day  sign  at  the  top  of  the  col- 
umn and  after  the  four  subdivisions  of  thirteen  days  each 
have  been  counted  we  arrive  at  the  day  3  Men,  the  second 
day  sign  in  the  column.  The  count  is  repeated  till  the 
260  days  have  been  exhausted  and  we  come  back  again 
to  3  Akbal.  In  the  diagram  the  red  numbers  of  the  codex 
are  represented  by  Roman  numerals  and  the  black  num- 
bers by  Arabic  numerals.  Since  the  count  in  this  ex- 
ample begins  with  3  and  the  addition  is  always  13,  or 
exactly  one  round  of  numbers  the  resultant  days  always 
have  the  number  3. 

The  three  pictures  of  gods  give  us  an  inkling  into  the 
significance  of  this  particular  tonalamatl.  All  of  the 
gods  carry  the  kan  or  maize  sign  in  their  hands.  The 
first  god  is  the  benevolent  rain  god  and  the  third  is 
the  benevolent  sun  god.  Between  them  is  seated 
the  malevolent  goddess  of  floods  with  a  serpent  on  her 
head.  The  maize  god  is  not  showrn  but  his  hieroglyph  is 
given.  The  tonalamatl  probably  deals  with  agriculture 


122  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

and  may  be  an  attempt  to  determine  lucky  days  for 
planting. 

Bases  of  Mayan  Chronology.  Several  attempts 
have  been  made  to  bring  about  a  concordance  of  Mayan 
and  European  chronology  with  widely  varying  results. 
Most  of  these  attempts  were  made  by  developing  a  single 
line  of  evidence  and  some  were  based  on  assumptions 
that  can  now  be  disproved.  But  no  single  line  of  evi- 
dence should  be  deemed  sufficient  to  decide  this  all  im- 
portant question.  The  general  course  of  Mayan  history 
is  indicated  unmistakably  by  three  principal  lines  of 
evidence  capable  of  being  correlated  with  each  other. 
These  are: — 

1st,  Natural  developments  of  sculpture,  architecture, 
etc. 

2nd,  Inscribed  dates  on  monuments. 

3rd,  Traditional  history  in  the  Bookgjof-OiilaiiJBalam. 

A  fourth  important  line  of  evidence  remains  to  be  de- 
veloped in  the  future.  This  relates  to  astronomical 
time.  There  is  more  than  a  suspicion  that  the  Mayas 
were  able  to  predict  eclipses  and  there  is  a  strong  possi- 
bility that  planetary  conjunctions  and  other  calculable 
phenomena  were  also  recorded.  Astronomical  checks 
on  chronology  may  possibly  appear  after  a  careful  study 
of  the  calculations  relating  to  Venus. 

Natural  developments  in  sculpture,  etc.,  validate  the 
contemporaneous  and  therefore  historical  character  of 
many  inscribed  dates.  In  fact,  the  relative  chronology 
of  the  cities  of  the  first  great  Mayan  period,  coming  over 
600  years,  is  now  upon  a  very  certain  basis.  After  the 
close  of  this  period  the  dates  were  no  longer  inscribed. 
We  are  still  able  to  indicate  the  course  of  change  in  the 
arts  but  we  cannot  express  this  in  terms  of  years.  Fin- 
ally, in  the  books  of  Chilan  Balam  we  have  a  dependable 
series  of  traditions  affecting  a  considerable  part  of  the 


Plate  XXII.  Development  in  Style  of  Carving  at  Copan.  Left 
to  right;  Stela  9;  Stela  5;  Stela  N;  Stela  H;  bottom,  Details  of  archi- 
tecture showing  analogous  development. 


123 


124  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

\  Mayan  nation  over  a  stretch  of  1400  years  previous  to 
|  the  Spanish  Conquest.  Now  it  seems  certain  that  the 
traditional  record  overlaps  the  inscribed  record  so  far  as 
definite  dating  is  concerned  while  the  natural  develop- 
ments give  aid  and  comfort  to  the  simplest  and  most  di- 
rect correlation. 

Historical  Development  of  Art.  The  sequence 
of  Mayan  monuments  can  be  determined  from  a  study  of 
the  style  of  sculpture.  Beginning  with  the  human  form 
we  find  at  Copan  a  remarkably  homogeneous  series  of 
stelae  on  which  a  royal  or  priestly  personage  stands  erect 
and  in  front  view.  A  Ceremonial  Bar  is  held  symmetri- 
cally in  the  two  arms  and  the  body  is  partly  covered  with 
rich  and  elaborate  ornament.  The  amount  of  relief,  the 
proportions  of  the  body,  the  forms  of  the  Ceremonial 
Bar,  etc.,  all  pass  through  a  harmonious  development. 
The  earliest  monuments  show  a  crude  block-like  carving 
of  the  face,  with  protruding  eyes,  while  the  latest  monu- 
ments have  fully  rounded  contours.  At  Tikal  the  stelae 
show,  for  the  most  part,  human  figures  in  profile,  but 
unmistakable  development  can  be  seen  in  general  quality 
of  carving  as  well  as  in  specific  details. 

In  making  comparisons  in  art  it  is  always  necessary  to 
consider  similar  things.  At  many  other  Mayan  cities 
than  the  two  named  above  it  is  possible  to  obtain  satis- 
factory evidence  of  sequence  in  art  forms  by  cutting 
out  similar  details  from  different  masses.  Thus  at  Nar- 
anjo  when  we  examine  all  the  Ceremonial  Bars  we  find  a 
remarkable  development  of  flamboyant  detail  on  the 
later  monuments.  At  Quirigua  the  faces  on  the  tops  of 
the  altars  may  be  compared  with  the  same  result.  At 
Piedras  Negras  the  heads  of  the  Two-headed  Dragon 
that  occur  in  exactly  similar  positions  on  four  monuments 
likewise  show  a  steady  modification  towards  flamboyancy 


\\ 


Fig.  48.  The  Front  Head  of  the  Two-Headed  Dragon  on 
Stela?  at  Piedras  Negras  showing  the  Increase  in  Flamboyant 
Treatment.  The  interval  between  (a)  and  (6)  is  125  years,  that 
between  (6)  and  (c)  is  45  years. 


125 


126 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


as  may  be  seen  from  Fig.  48,  where  the  front  heads  are 

put  side  by  side. 

Still  other  lines  of  evidence  on 
historical  sequence  are  to  be  gained 
from  a  study  of  architecture.  Not 
only  is  it  possible  to  determine  the 
general  developments  that  hold 
true  of  the  entire  Mayan  area  but 
also  in  a  given  city  it  is  sometimes 
possible  to  arrange  the  buildings  in 
their  order  of  erection  according  to 
dependable  criteria,  both  decorative 
and  structural. 

The  earliest  temples  have 
narrow  vaulted  rooms,  heavy  walls, 
and  a  single  doorway.  The  rooms 
increase  in  width,  the  walls  de- 
crease in  thickness,  the  doorways 
multiply  till  the 
spaces  between 
them  become 
piers  and  finally 
columns.  The 
support  for  the 
heavy  roof  comb 


Fig.  49.  Grotesque 
Face  on  the  Back  of 
Stela  B,  Copan. 


taxed  the  structural  ingenuity  of  the 
Mayan  architects.  The  solving  of  this 
problem  is  marked  by  successive  ad- 
vances and  since  mechanical  science 
goes  forward  rather  than  backward 
the  relative  order  of  structures  is 
fairly  certain.  Moreover,  many  buildings  are  closely 
associated  with  dated  monuments,  tablets,  lintels,  or 
stelse.  Still  another  evidence  of  architectural  sequence 
is  seen  in  structures  that  have  been  enlarged  by  the  ad- 


Fig.  50.  Jaguar  in 
Dresden  Codex  with 
a  Water  Lily  at- 
tached to  Forehead. 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION 


127 


dition  of  wings  or  by  the  enclosing  of  the  old  parts  under 

new  masonry. 
.^ 

Dated  Monuments.  We  have  seen  that  many 
monuments  carry  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  containing 
dates  in  the  Mayan  system  of  counting  time.  It  is  im- 
possible to  read  the  texts  that  accompany  these  dates. 
But  it  is  a  remarkable  fact 
that  when  we  arrange  the 
monuments  in  their  artistic 
order  we  find  that  the  in- 
scribed dates  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases  fall  in  the 
same  order.  This  leads  us 
to  conclude  that  the  dates 
are  practically  contempor- 
aneous with  the  carving  and 
setting  up  of  the  monuments. 
Now  the  above  is  especially 
true  when  the  inscription 
gives  a  simple  Initial  Series 
date.  When  more  than  one 
date  is  given  the  historic 
one  appears  in  most  instan- 
ces to  be  the  latest,  but  in 
a  few  instances  it  appears  to 
be  a  specially  emphasized 
intermediate  date.  In  addition,  then,  to  contempor- 
aneous dates  there  are  some  that  refer  to  the  past  and 
others  that  refer  to  the  future. 

Some  writers  have  assumed  that  the  stelse  and  other 
inscribed  monuments  were  primarily  time  markers  set 
up  at  the  end  of  hotun  (or  five  year)  periods.  This  seems 
an  unnecessarily  narrow  view.  We  can  demonstrate 
that  some  inscriptions  deal  with  astronomical  facts  cover- 


Fig.  51.  Late  Sculpture 
from  Chichen  Itza.  The 
headdress  resembles  that 
worn  by  the  rulers  on  the 
highlands  of  Mexico. 


128  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

ing  long  stretches  of  time.  It  is  also  apparent  that  many 
of  the  sculptures  represent  conquests  and  it  is  extremely 
likely  that  portraits  of  actual  rulers  are  to  be  seen  in  cer- 
tain carvings.  It  would  be  too  much  to  expect  events  to 
happen  regularly  at  the  end  of  time  periods  and  as  a 
matter  of  fact  we  find  at  different  cities  repeated  dates 
that  do  not  occupy  such  positions.  These  repeated 
dates  would  seem  to  recall  events  of  special  importance 
to  the  city  in  question. 

The  running  co-ordination  between  the  apparent  order 
of  the  artistic  styles  and  inscribed  dates  permits  us  to 
measure  very  accurately  the  rate  of  change  which  was 
rapid,  indeed,  at  certain  times.  The  style  of  carving,  on 
the  other  hand,  enables  us  to  put  into  definite  52  year 
periods  many  of  the  calendar  round  dates — if  these  are 
to  be  regarded  as  contemporaneous.  The  result  is  that 
for  the  First  Empire,  as  it  has  been  called,  there  is  an  ex- 
ceedingly accurate  chronology.  After  the  fall  and  aban- 
donment of  the  great  southern  cities  dates  are  rare 
and  we  have  to  fall  back  upon  remnants  of  history  pre- 
served after  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards. 

i      Books  of  Chilan  Balam.     The  Books  of  Chilan 
!  Balam  are  digests  of  ancient  chronicles  preserved  in  the 
,  Mayan  language  but  in  Spanish  script.     The  events  are 
/  recorded  as  occurring  in  such  and  such  a  katun.     Now 
the  katun  of  these  chronicles  is  exactly  the  same  length 
as  the  katun  or  fourth  position  in  the  ancient  Initial  Se- 
ries dates  (20x360  or  7200  days).     All  katuns  are  com- 
pleted on  a  day  Ahau  which  may  have  any  number  from 
1  to  13.     In  the  Kahlay  katun  ob  or  "  record  of  the  ka- 
tuns, ' '  which  gives  the  actual  sequence  of  the  terminal 
Ahaus,  the  numbers  fall  as  follows:  13, 11,  9,  7,  5,  3, 1, 12, 
10,  8,  6,  4,  2,  after  which  there  is  a  repeat.     The  time 
covered  by  this  wheel  is  13  x  7200  or  93,600  days  (almost 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  129 

260  years).  In  the  ancient  long  count  the  katuns  also 
ended  with  these  days  in  the  same  order,  but  a  month 
name  and  position  were  also  given  while  the  katun  was 
designated  by  its  coefficient.  Thus  9-15-0-0-0  is  ordin- 
arily called  Cycle  9,  Katun  15.  It  ended  with  the  day 
4  Ahau  13  Yax.  In  the  newer  and  less  far-reaching  sys- 
tem of  the  Books  of  Chilan  Balam,  this  katun  would  be 
called  simply  Katun  4  Ahau. 

Correlation  with  Christian  Chronology.  The 

record  of  the  Books  of  Chilan  Balam  extends  back  to 
about  160  A.  D.  and  while  the  early  entries  are  not  nu- 
merous and  the  historical  character  is  somewhat  clouded 
with  mythology,  we  are  given,  nevertheless,  material 
upon  which  to  base  a  correlation  with  European  chrono- 
logy. A  single  monument  bearing  an  Initial  Series  date 
exists  at  Chichen  Itza,  and  if  historical  it  must  have 
been  carved  during  the  early  occupation  of  this  city. 
According  to  the  chronicles,  Chichen  Itza  was  abandoned 
soon  after  600  A.  D.  and  was  not  re-established  till  about 
960  A.  D.  There  is  only  place  in  the  later  katun  se- 
quence of  the  chronicles  where  the  recorded  katun  of  the 
earlier  system  of  the  inscriptions  can  fall.  For  the  In- 
itial Series  gives  Cycle  10,  Katun  2  and  we  know  this 
ended  with  a  day  3  Ahau  and  must  therefore  be  placed  in 
a  Katun  3  Ahau.  Now  only  one  Katun  3  Ahau  passed 
during  the  first  occupation  of  Chichen  Itza.  When  this 
correlation  is  made  the  count  of  the  chronicles  is  shown 
to  begin  with  9-0-0-0-0,  a  very  significant  "round  num 
ber  "  date  that  marks  the  beginning  of  Mayan  greatness. 

The  correlation  of  the  Mayan  katun  count  of  the  Books, 
of  Chilan  Balam  with  the  European  calendar  is  not  as 
definite  as  might  be  wished  but  the  possibility^of-error 
seems  to  be  not  greater  than  four  or  five  years.     Future 
research  will  probably  make  it  exact. 


130  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

Summary  of  Mayan  History.     A  brief  summary 
of  Mayan  history  is  given  below:— 


PROTOHISTORIC  PERIOD 
Before  160  A.D.—  9-0-0-0-0. 

During  this  period  the  calendar  and  hieroglyphic 
systems  were  being  developed.  The  earliest  date 
is  the  somewhat  doubtful  one  on  the  Tuxtla  Stat- 
uette (113  B.  C.).  The  next  earliest  date  is  the 
assured  one  on  the  Leiden  Plate  (47  A.  D.).  A  very 
early  monument  at  a  site  in  northern  Guatemala  called 
Uaxactun  has  recently  been  discovered  by  Mr.  S.  G. 
Morley.  The  date,  8-14-10-13-15  falls  within  the 
limits  set  for  this  period. 

i^-V'-jj.*-  > 

EARLY  PERIOD 
160  A.D.  to  358  A.D.—  9-0-0-0-0  to  9-10-0-0-0. 

During  this  period  the  great  cities  of  the  south 
had  their  start.  Enormous  mounds  were  erected  and 
temples  were  built  upon  them.  Public  squares  were 
laid  out  and  in  these  were  set  up  stelae  and  altars.  The 
earliest  dated  monument  (except  for  the  one  referred  to 
above)  is  Stela  3  at  Tikal,  214  A.  D.  Several  monuments 
at  this  city  are  carved  in  a  still  earlier  style.  Copan  fol- 
lows with  Stela  15  which  has  a  date  thirty-seven  years 
later.  The  carving  throughout  this  period  is  crude  and 
angular.  The  profile  presentation  of  the  human  figure 
is  better  handled  by  the  early  artists  than  is  front  view 
presentation.  The  principal  conventions  of  Mayan  art 
seem  to  have  been  fixed  during  the  protohistoric  period 
and  the  serpent  was  much  used  as  a  motive  of  decoration 
during  the  archaic  period.  It  seems  likely  that  the  archaic 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  131 

pottery  art  of  the  arid  highlands,  discussed  in  the 
previous  chapter,  was  still  being  made  when  Mayan  art 
began  its  remarkable  rise.  The  transitional  types  are 
doubtless  to  be  assigned  to  the  first  three  centuries  of 
the  Christian  Era. 

MIDDLE  PERIOD 
358  A.D.  to  455  A.D.— 9-10-0-0-0  to  9-15-0-0-0. 

Some  of  the  most  beautiful  works  of  art  belong  to  the 
middle  period.  While  archaism  did  not  actually  dis- 
appear till  the  end  of  this  period  there  is  a  certain 
purity  of  style  and  straightforwardness  of  presentation 
about  many  of  these  early  sculptures.  Flamboyancy 
is  not  apparent.  At  Copan  the  Great  Mound  was  begun 
during  this  period  and  this  enormous  undertaking  doubt- 
less absorbed  so  much  energy  that  few  stela?  were  set 
up.  The  best  series  of  monuments  from  the  middle 
period  are  seen  at  Naranjo  and  Piedras  Negras. 

GREAT  PERIOD 
455  A.D  to  600  A.D. 

A  short  brilliant  period  followed  in  which  many  cities 
flourished.  In  addition  to  the  cities  already  mentioned 
there  were  Quirigua,  Ixkun,  Seibal,  Holmul,  Nakum, 
Cancuen,  Yaxchilan,  Palenque,  etc.  The  art  passes 
through  some  interesting  changes,  becoming  more  com- 
plex in  certain  features  and  less  complex  in  others.  The 
architecture  makes  great  advances.  Rooms  become 
wider,  walls  thinner,  and  forms  more  refined  and  pleasing. 
The  calculations  in  the  inscriptions  deal  more  and  more 
with  complicated  astronomical  subjects  and  historical 
Initial  Series  dates  become  less  and  less  common  and 


132  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

finally  cease.  Many  dates  of  the  calendar  round  and 
period  ending  types  are  given.  This  brilliant  epoch 
seems  to  have  come  to  an  end  through  civil  war  and 
social  decadence.  The  references  in  the  chronicles  to 
this  early  period  are  very  brief.  The  settlement  of 
Bacalar  is  stated  as  well  as  the  discovery  of  Chichen  Itza. 
An  Initial  Series  inscription  at  the  later  site  gives  us  one 
of  our  latest  historical  dates  and  permits  the  correla- 
tion of  the  ancient  dates  with  European  chronology. 

TRANSITION  PERIOD 
600  A.  D.  to  960  A.  D. 

The  early  Mayan  cities  seem  to  have  been  abandoned 
about  600  A.D.  and  a  general  shift  towards  the  north 
seems  to  have  taken  place.  Architecture  was  still  kept 
up  but  pictorial  sculpture  practically  disappeared. 
Certain  cities  south  of  Uxmal  probably  date  from  this 
decadent  period,  examples  being  Hochob  and  Dsibilno- 
cac.  At  Xcalumkin  there  is  an  Initial  Series  date 
which  may  refer  to  about  910  A.D.  The  architectural 
styles  form  the  only  evidence  of  artistic  sequence  availa- 
ble, although  if  excavations  were  conducted  it  is  possible 
that  pottery  would  also  help.  In  the  chronicles  this 
period  falls,  for  the  most  part,  after  the  first  abandon- 
ment of  Chichen  Itza  and  while  the  Mayas  were  hold- 
ing the  land  of  Chakanputun.  This  land  may  be  the 
central  portion  of  the  Yucatan  peninsula. 

PERIOD  OF  THE  LEAGUE  OF  MAYAPAN 
960  A.  D.  to  1195  A.  D. 

This  period  is  characterized  by  a  noteworthy  re- 
vival of  architecture  occurring  in  northern  Yucatan. 


THE  MAYAN  CIVILIZATION  133 

According  to  the  chronicles  the  land  of  Chakanputun 
was  abandoned  by  the  tribe  of  Mayas  known  as  the 
Itzas  and  Chichen  Itza  was  re-established.  About 
the  same  time  Uxmal  and  Mayapan  were  also 
founded  and  a  league  between  these  three  principal 
cities  was  instituted.  Many  other  cities,  such  as 
Kabah,  Labna,  Sayil,  and  Izamal  also  seem  to  have 
flourished  at  this  time  but  we  have  no  traditions  of  any 
except  Izamal.  The  architectural  styles  of  decoration 
during  this  period  are  more  formal  than  those  of  earlier 
times.  The  mask  panel,  a  face  reduced  to  a  rectangular 
area  and  built  up  mosaic-like  out  of  separately  carved 
blocks,  is  the  most  important  motive  but  there  is  also 
a  great  use  of  geometric  figures  such  as  fret  meanders, 
banded  columns,  and  imitation  diagonal  lattice  work. 
At  Uxmal  and  Chichen  Itza  are  found  highly  modified 
and  scarcely  recognizable  examples  of  profile  mask 
panels  such  as  occur  in  realistic  forms  in  earlier  cities. 
Several  of  the  large  communal  buildings  show  different 
stages  of  growth. 

PERIOD  OF  MEXICAN  INFLUENCE 
1195  A.  D.  to  1442  A.  D. 

This  period  lies  between  the  first  serious  outbreak 
of  civil  war  under  the  league  of  the  three  cities  and 
the  final  destruction  of  Mayapan  about  a  hundred 
years  before  the  Spaniards  settled  at  Merida.  The  civil 
war  was  begun  by  a  warrior  called  Hunac  Ceel  and 
Chichen  Itza  was  loser.  This  chief  seems  to  have  called 
for  aid  upon  seven  foreigners  with  Mexican  names .  These 
foreigners  may  have  later  acquired  Chichen  Itza  as  the 
spoils  of  war.  There  is  no  definite  statement  to  this 
effect,  but  the  architecture  and  art  of  Chichen  Itza 


134  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

show  a  great  and  sudden  influx  of  new  ideas  that  are 
characteristic  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico.  No  other  city 
of  this  region  has  so  many  of  these  intrusive  features. 
An  instance  is  the  Great  Ball  Court  with  its  connected 
temples.  The  ball  court  is  found  in  many  Mexican 
cities  where  it  had  a  strong  religious  significance  but  it 
is  absent  from  any  of  the  great  Mayan  cities  with  the 
exception  of  Chichen  Itza  and  Uxmal.  Sculptures  and 
hieroglyphs  in  the  style  of  the  Mexican  highlands  also 
occur  in  quantity  at  Chichen  Itza.  No  one  can  state 
definitely  the  length  of  this  Toltecan  supremacy  on 
Mayan  soil,  but  it  probably  was  not  for  long  and  pos- 
sibly came  to  an  end  before  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  The  cities  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico  to  which 
this  intrusive  culture  is  to  be  ascribed  are  those  of  the 
Toltecan  period,  such  as  Tula,  Teotihuacan,  and 
Cholula. 

MODERN  PERIOD 
1442  to  the  present  day 

After  the  fall  of  Mayapan,  the  Mayas  seem  to  have 
been  divided  into  many  w^arring  factions.  All  the  great 
cities  were  abandoned  although  the  temples  were  still 
regarded  as  sacred.  Of  course,  stone  construction  was 
still  prevalent  as  we  know  from  some  of  the  Spanish 
descriptions  of  towns  on  the  coast.  Learning  was  still 
maintained  by  the  nobles  and  the  priests.  But  there 
was  not  the  centralized  authority  necessary  for  the 
keeping  of  such  luxurious  capitals  as  existed  in  the  old 
days.  The  Itzas,  in  part  at  least,  returned  to  one  of 
their  ancient  seats  in  the  south,  founding  the  island 
town  of  Tayasal  in  Lake  Peten.  Here  Mayan  culture 
was  preserved  until  1696.  At  the  present  time  certain 
ancient  ideas  still  persist  as  has  already  been  stated  in 
connection  with  the  ethnology  of  the  Lacandone  Indi- 


THE  MAYAN     CIVILIZATION  135 

ans.  Upon  the  western  highlands  there  are  preserved 
traditions  which  concern  the  Quiches,  Cakchiquels,  and 
other  Mayan  tribes,  but  the  history  does  not  go  back  for 
more  than  two  hundred  years  before  the  Spanish  con- 
quest. All  in  all,  there  is  little  to  be  said  in  favor  of  the 
frequent  plaint  that  the  coming  of  the  white  man 
snuffed  out  a  culture  that  promised  great  things.  The 
golden  days  of  the  Mayan  civilization  had  already 
passed,  and,  if  we  may  judge  by  the  history  of  other 
nations,  would  never  have  returned. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS 

THE  influence  of  the  Mayan  civilization  when  at  its 
height  (400  to  600  A.  D.)  may  be  traced  far  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  Mayan  area.  Ideas  in  art,  religion, 
and  government  that  were  then  spread  broadcast 
served  to  quicken  nations  of  diverse  speech  and  a  series 
of  divergent  cultures  resulted.  Most  of  these  lesser 
civilizations  were  at  their  best  long  after  the  great 
Mayan  civilization  had  declined,  but  one  or  two  were 
possibly  contemporary.  It  will  be  the  aim  in  the 
present  chapter  to  emphasize  the  indebtedness  of  these 
lesser  civilizations  to  the  Mayas  as  well  as  to  com- 
ment upon  their  individual  characters. 

We  will  first  proceed  northwest  into  Mexico  and  then 
southeast  into  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  environ- 
ment under  which  the  Mayas  developed  their  arts  of 
life  continues  in  narrowing  bands  westward  along  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  southward  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Tehuantepec.  The  most  westerly  Mayan  city  of  im- 
portance seems  to  have  been  Comalcalco.  But  there 
is  also  a  large  ruin  near  San  Andres  Tuxtla  and  it  may 
be  significant  that  the  earliest  dated  object  of  the  Mayas 
(the  Tuxtla  Statuette)  came  from  this  region.  In  other 
words,  the  cradle  of  Mayan  culture  may  have  been  in 
this  coastal  belt  where  arid  and  humid  conditions  exist 
side  by  side  and  where  the  figurines  of  the  archaic  type 
are  found  together  with  those  of  the  Mayas.  Unfortun- 
ately, the  archseology  of  this  part  of  Mexico  has  been 
little  studied  and  we  are  compelled  to  go  farther  up  the 
coast,  to  the  Totonacs  or  farther  inland  to  the  Zapotecs 
before  we  can  find  material  for  study. 

137 


£ 

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if 


138 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS  139 

Zapotecan  Culture.  In  the  state  of  Oaxaca  the 
Zapotecan  Indians  attained  to  a  high  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion but  a  study  of  their  art  shows  that  they  were 
greatly  indebted  to  the  Mayas  for  decorative  motives. 
Monte  Alban,  the  principal  archaeological  site  in  point 
of  size  seems  also  to  be  the  most  ancient.  Stelse  are 


Fig.  52.  Comparison  of  Mayan  and  Zapotecan  Serpent 
Heads.  The  first  two  examples  are  from  Palenque  and  the  second 
two  from  Monte  Alban. 

found  at  this  city,  as  well  as  narrow  vaulted  chambers. 
The  crest  of  a  mountain  overlooking  the  beautiful 
valley  of  Oaxaca  is  l^v-eled  and  terraced  and  laid  out 
in  courts  surrounded  by  pyramids.  The  sides  of  all 
structures  are  aligned  with  the  four  directions  of  the 
compass.  The  temples  which  once  crowned  the  pyra- 
mids have  fallen  into  ruin  and  only  here  and  there  is  it 
possible  to  discern  the  outline  of  simple  cell-like  rooms 
that  probably  had  flat  roofs. 

Unfortunately,  no  traditions  have  come  down  to  us 
to  help  in  the  restoration  of  Zapotecan  history.  Al- 
though the  art  was  pretty  clearly  derived  from  the 
Mayas  it  nevertheless  developed  some  interesting 
characters  of  its  own.  Sculptured  slabs  are  found  in  a 
number  of  localities  besides  Monte  Alban,  but  only  at 
this  ruin  are  they  in  situ  and  of  great  size.  The  typical 
Zapotecan  pottery  is  found  at  Monte  Alban  but  the 
most  elaborate  forms  are  found  at  other  and  apparently 
later  ruins.  Zapotecan  art  in  stone  flourished  in  a 
restricted  area  and  only  one  ruin  outside  the  Valley 


140 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS  141 

of  Oaxaca  offers  striking  similarities  to  it.  This  is  the 
famous  ruin  of  Xochicalco_jsituated  about  five  hours 
ride  from  Cuernavaca.  'Whether  any  historical  con- 
nection ever  existed  between  Monte  Alban  and  Xochi- 
calco  must  be  decided  by  future  exploration. 

The  hieroglyphs  that  are  found  on  the  stelse  of  Monte 
Alban  often  strongly  resemble  those  of  the  Mayas. 
The  same  use  of  bars  and  dots  for  numerals  is  to  be 


ooo 


Fig.  53.     Bar  and  Dot  Numerals  combined  with  Hieroglyphs 
on  Zapotecan  Monuments. 

noted  and  it  even  seems  possible  to  transcribe  some  of 
the  signs  into  the  Mayan  system.  Lintels  with  lines 
of  hieroglyphs  on  the  outer  edge  have  been  found  at 
Cuilapa  and  Xoxo.  Those  of  the  latter  site  seem  to 
have  degenerated  into  meaningless  decorative  forms. 

In  Zapotecan  funerary  urns  a  close  connection  with 
Mayan  art  can  easily  be  demonstrated.  The  urns  are 
cylindrical  vessels  concealed  behind  elaborate  figures 
built  up  from  moulded  and  modeled  pieces.  Many  of 
these  built-up  figures  clearly  represent  human  beings 
while  others  represent  grotesque  divinities  or  human 
beings  wearing  the  masks  of  divinities.  The  purely 
human  types  have  a  formal  modeling  in  high  relief,  the 
head  usually  being  out  of  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the 
body.  The  pose  is  ordinarily  a  seated  one  with  the 
hands  resting  on  the  knees  or  folded  over  the  breast. 
Details  of  dress  are  very  clearly  shown  including  capes, 
girdles,  aprons,  or  skirts  and  headdresses.  Necklaces 
are  often  worn  with  a  crossbar  pendant  to  which  shells 


Pottery,  Plate  XXV.     Zapotecan  Incense  Burners,  and  Funerary 
Urns. 


142 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS  143 

are  attached.  Headdresses  are  made  of  feathers  and 
grotesque  faces  and  are  often  very  elaborate.  As  for 
the  divine  types  the  jaguar  and  a  long-nosed  reptile  are 
the  most  common.  The  latter  has  a  human  body  and 
may  possibly  be  an  adaptation  of  the  Mayan  Long- 
nosed  God. 

The  funerary  urns  are  found  in  burial  mounds  called 
mogotes  which  contain  cell-like  burial  chambers.  The 
urns  are  not  found  within  these  cells  but  on  the  floor  in 
front  of  them,  in  a  niche  over  the  door  or  even  on  the 
roof.  They  are  frequently  encountered  in  groups  of 
five  and  seem  never  to  contain  offerings. 

Other  Zapotecan  pottery  is  mostly  made  of  the  same 
bluish  clay  used  in  the  urns.  This  clay  is  finely 
adapted  to  plastic  treatment  but  never  carries  painted 
designs.  The  pottery  products  include  pitchers  of 
beautiful  and  unusual  shapes,  dishes  with  tripod  legs 
modeled  into  serpent  heads,  incense  burners,  bowls, 
plates,  etc.  Of  the  same  clay  are  also  made  whistles  in 
realistic  forms,  and  moulded  figurines.  Painted  pot- 
tery also  occurs  in  forms  and  designs  of  rare  beauty, 
but  it  is  much  less  characteristic  of  the  Zapotecan 
province  than  the  unpainted  ware. 

Carved  jades  of  splendid  workmanship  have  been 
recovered  in  the  Zapotecan  region  and  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  this  semi-precious  stone  was  obtained 
here  in  the  natural  state.  Many  of  the  pieces  are 
smoothed  only  on  the  front,  while  the  back  retains  its 
old  weathered  and  stream-worn  surface.  Beautiful 
examples  of  gold  work  have  also  been  found  in  this 
region. 

The  ruins  of  Mitla  are  described  in  a  later  section 
since  they  came  within  the  sphere  of  influence  of  the 
Aztecs.  Codices  ascribed  to  southern  Mexico  will  also 


Plate  XXVI.  (a)  Sculpture  of  Stone  of  the 
Period  showing  Rulers  seated  upon  Thrones  before 
Tablets  pierced  for  Suspension,  found  in  Zapotec 


Jade 


144 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS  145 

be  considered  at  that  time.  It  may  not  be  out  of  place, 
however,  to  discuss  briefly  here  the  religion  and  time 
counts  of  the  Zapotecans. 

The  high  priests  of  the  Zapotecans  were  called 
"Seers"  and  the  ordinary  priests  were  "Guardians  of 
the  Gods"  and  "Sacrificers."  There  was  a  sort  of 
priestly  college  where  the  sonsof^chiefs  were  trained 
in  the  service  of  the  gods.  [The  religious  practices 
included  incense  burning,  sacrificing  of  birds,  and  ani- 
mals, and  letting  of  one's  own  blood  by  piercing  the 
tongue  and  the  ear.  Human  sacrifice  was  made  on 
stated  occasions  and  was  attended  by  rites  of  great 
solemnity.  The  Zapotecs  never  went  to  the  blood 
excesses  that  stain  the  annals  of  the  AztecsTJ 

The  260  day  cycle  of  the  time  count,  was  subdivided 
into  four  periods  of  65  days  and  each  period  was  under 
control  of  a  single  god  and  was  associated  with  one  of 
the  cardinal  points.  Each  period  of  sixty -five  days  was 
further  divided  into  five  groups  of  thirteen  days  for 
a  ceremonial  reason.  Some  authorities  have  con- 
sidered that  the  general  form  of  the  Central  American 
calendar  originated  in  the  region  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Tehuantepec  and  spread  to  the  north  and  to  the  south. 
But  dependable  history  in  the  Mayan  area  goes  back 
much  farther  than  in  the  Zapotecan  region  and  renders 
such  a  guess  extremely  hazardous. 

Totonacan  Culture.  In  the  central  part  of  the 
state  of  Vera  Cruz  are  found  the  remains  commonly 
referred  to  the  Totonacan  Indians.  These  Indians  are 
southern  neighbors  of  the  Huastecas  who  are  an  outly- 
ing Mayan  tribe.  The  Totonacan  language  is  accord- 
ing to  some  authorities  thrown  into  the  Mayan  stock. 
If  not  truly  Mayan  it  contains  many  loan  words.  This 
apparent  connection  in  language  is  all  the  more  inter- 


146  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

\ 

esting  in  view  of  the  character  of  Totonacan  art  which 
also  shows  a  strong  strain  of  Mayan  feeling  and  tech- 
nique in  certain  products  but  an  unmistakable  likeness 
to  the  archaic  art  of  the  Mexican  highlands  in  certain 
other  products.  The  pottery  faces  in  the  archaic  style 
are  advanced  beyond  the  average  of  such  work  and 
probably  represent  a  late  phase.  It  is  possible  to  bring 
forward  examples  of  every  degree  of  transition  from  the 


Fig.  54.     The  Eyes  of  Totonacan  Figurines. 

archaic  style  to  the  classical  Mayan  of  Tabasco  and 
Chiapas.  Curiously  enough,  it  does  not  seem  possible 
to  extend  these  linking  likenesses  to  the  Huastecas. 

A  series  of  eyes  showing  Totonacan  modifications  of 
the  styles  prevalent  on  the  archaic  pottery  heads  of  the 
Highlands  is  given  in  Fig.  54.  In  some  cases  we  find  the 
simple  single  or  double  groove  eyes  and  in  other  cases 
these  eyes  are  made  more  conspicuous  by  the  use  of 
black  bituminous  paint.  The  eyeball  is  developed  at 
the  end  of  the  series. 

The  smiling  or  laughing  faces  have  a  much  higher 
technique  and  are  perhaps  the  finest  examples  of  clay 
modeling  from  the  New  World.  These  heads  have 
tubular  extensions  at  the  back  and  were  possibly  set  into 
temple  walls.  The  faces  and  foreheads  are  broadened 
in  accordance  with  the  esthetic  type  of  a  forehead  flat- 
tening people.  While  the  faces  vary  so  much  in  minor 
details  as  to  create  the  impression  that  they  are  por- 
traits of  actual  persons  they  are  alike  in  method  of 
modeling.  Nearly  all  are  laughing  or  smiling  in  a  very 
contagious  fashion.  Sometimes  the  tip  of  the  tongue  is 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS 


147 


caught  between  the  teeth,  sometimes  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  are  pulled  down  as  if  the  smile  were  reluctant, 
and  there  are  other  individual  variations  in  the  expres- 
sions of  lovelv  and  unrestrained  mirth. 


Plate  XXVII.  Laughing  Head  of  the  Totonacs,  remarkable 
example  of  Freehand  Modeling  in  Clay.  Heads  of  this  type 
probably  served  as  decorative  details  on  temple  fronts. 

Perhaps  the  most  famous  objects  found  in  Totonacan 
territory  are  the  so-called  "stone  collars"  or  "sacri- 
ficial yokes."  In  size  and  shape  these  resemble  horse 
collars,  but  in  contrast  to  somewhat  similar  objects  from 


148 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS  149 

Porto  Rico  they  are  usually  open  while  the  latter  are 
closed.  Nothing  is  really  known  concerning  their  use 
but  there  has  been  no  lack  of  fanciful  surmises.  The 
most  popular  explanation  is  that  the  yok£s  were  placed 
over  the  necks  of  victims  about  to  be  sacrificed.  It  is 
evident  that  the  yokes  were  intended  to  be  placed  in  a 
horizontal  position  because  there  is  a  plain  lower  surface 
and  the  ends  are  frequently  carved  with  faces  that  are 
right  side  up  only  when  the  plain  side  is  down.  These 
yokes  represent  the  richest  and  most  elaborate  works  of 
art  in  the  entire  region  since  they  are  carved  in  the  most 
finished  manner  from  single  blocks  of  exceedingly  hard 
stone. 

Other  peculiarly  shaped  stones  are  found  in  the 
Totonacan  area  and  are  carved  according  to  the  same 
splendid  technique.  The  "paddle-shaped"  stones  have 
been  found  in  considerable  numbers  and  their  use,  like 
that  of  the  stone  yokes  is  absolutely  unknown.  It  is 
evident  from  the  carving  that  they  were  intended  to  be 
stood  on  end. 

The  designs  on  the  sacrificial  yokes  and  paddle  stones 
are  largely  reptilian,  but  there  are  examples  where  the 
turkey,  the  coyote,  as  well  as  the  human  motive  are 
treated  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  the  Mayas.  In 
fact  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  best  period  of 
Totonacan  art  corresponded  pretty  closely  to  the  best 
period  of  Mayan  art.  The  most  important  site  is 
Papantla  where  a  remarkably  ornate  pyramid  rising  in 
six  terraces  may  be  seen,  as  well  as  massive  sculptures  in 
the  same  style  as  the  works  of  art  described  above.  The 
front  wall  of  each  terrace  on  all  four  sides  of  the  pyra- 
mid, except  for  the  space  occupied  by  the  stairway  is 
divided  into  a  series  of  niches  neatly  made  of  cut  stone. 
Formerly  each  of  these  niches  may  have  served  to 


150  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

shelter  the  statue  of  some  god.  Many  fine  remains  of 
Totonacan  art  have  been  recovered  from  the  Island  of 
Sacrifices  in  the  harbor  of  Vera  Cruz.  This  island 
retained  its  ancient  sacrificial  character  in  the  time  of 
the  Spanish  conquerors.  It  is  apparent,  however,  that 
the  culture  had  already  changed  greatly  if  we  may 
judge  by  the  ruins  of  Cempoalan,  the  Totonacan  capital 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  art  of  this  city  is  largely 
Aztecan. 

The  ToltCCS.  The  first  peoples  to  appear  in  Mexi- 
can history  are  the  Olmecs  and  Toltecs.  Tales  o^ 
ancient  splendor  cluster  about  them,  but  there  is  a  woe- 
ful lack  of  definite  information  concerning  their  origin 
and  the  extent  of  their  dominion xLSome  authorities  see^. 
in  the  Olmecs  a  Mayan  tribe  that  once  inhabited  the] 
region  east  and  southeast  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico  and 
who  were  afterwards  driven  out.  But  it  seems  more 
likely  that  both  the  Olmecs  and  the  Toltecs  were  tribes 
of  Nahuan  rather  than  Mayan  stock  and  that  they  were 
merelv  the  first  of  the  Highlanders  to  feel  the  quickening 

t  C-*  A  O 

effect  of  Mayan  contact-J  Both  terms  were  probably 
generalized  by  the  later  nations  far  beyond  their  original 
significance.  The  Toltecs  derived  their  name  from  Tula 
or  Tollan,  which  was  only  one  of  several  cities  that 
flourished  during  the  Toltecan  period.  Whether  all 
these  cities  were  ever  bonded  into  a  political  whole  is  a 
question  that  cannot  now  be  answered. 

Owing  to  the  lack  of  a  "long  count"  the  dates  in 
Toltecan  history  are  few  and  uncertain.  The  Mexican 
document  with  the  longest  range  of  history  is  the  Annals 
of  Quauhtitlan  in  which  the  count  of  years  goes  back  in 
a  practically  unbroken  series  to  635  A.D.  Still  earlier 
dates  are  indicated.  For  instance,  the  legendary 
departure  from  Chiconoztoc,  the  Seven  Caves,  is 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS  151 

placed  for  the  Chichimecas  as  364  years  (7  x  52)  before 
their  settlement  in  687  at  Quauhtitlan.  An  annotation 
on  the  manuscript  reading:  "6  times  4  centuries,  plus 
1  century  plus  13  years,  today  the  22nd  of  May,  1558" 
has  been  taken  to  summarize  the  scope  of  the  original. 
The  "centuries"  are  of  course  the  native  "cycles"  of 
52  years  and  the  total  on  this  basis  amounts  to  1313 
years  which  subtracted  from  1558  would  carry  us  back 
to  245  A.D\ 

While  this  chronicle  concerns  itself  mostly  with  the 
lowly  Chichimecas  who  did  not  become  important  until  \ 
after  the  downfall  of  Toltecan  power,  still  what  pur- 
ports to  be  a  genealogy  of  the  rulers  of  Tula  is  also  given. 
From  other  sources,  such  as  the  writings  of  Fernando  de 
Alva  Ixtlilxochitl,  we  are  able  to  gain  a  little  additional 
light  on  some  of  the  Toltecan  chiefs.    /The  person  of 
Quetzalcoatl  in  this  history  is  endowed  with  super- 
natural qualities  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  he  was  a 
great  religious  teacher.     Of  course,  the  name  is  also 
applied  to  one  of  the  important  deities  and  this  fact  has  • 
doubtless  led   to  much  of  the  confusion  that  existsj 
(Under  Huemac,  the  last  of  the  Toltecan  chiefs,  witcl> 
craft  and  human  sacrifice  appear  to  have  laid  the  ground 
for  oppression  and  war._^ 

SUMMARY  OF  TOLTECAN  HISTORY 

726  Toltecs  establish  their  government  in  Cuxhuacan. 

752  Mixcoamacatzin  is  elected  chief. 

817  Mixcoamacatzin  dies  and  is  succeeded  by  Huetzin. 

835  Huetzin  dies  and  is  succeeded  by  Ihuitimal. 

843  The  miraculous  birth  of  Quetzalcoatl  takes  place. 

870  Quetzalcoatl  arrive's  at  Tullanzinco  and  performs  rites. 

873  Ihuitimal  dies  and  Quetzalcoatl  is  made  ruler. 

883  Quetzalcoatl,  the  lesser,  dies.     Temple  building. 

895  Quetzalcoatl  dies  and  is  succeeded  by  Matlaxochitl    who    moves 

the  government  to  Tula. 

930  Matlaxochitl  dies  and  is  followed  by  Nauhyotzin. 

945  Nauhyotzin  is  succeeded  by  Matlacoatzin. 

973  Matlacoatzin  is  succeeded  by  Tlilcoahuatzin. 


152  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

994   Tlilcoahuatzin  dies  and  the  famous  Huemac  takes  the  power.  The 

wicked  magic  of  his  queen. 
1018   The  great  starvation  takes  place. 

1058  Many  strange  things  happen  in  Tula.  The  demons  arrive. 

1059  Two  armies  attack  the  population.     Despotism  begins.     First 

sacrifice  of  nobles. 

1063  War  wages.     The  Otomies  attack — the  skins  of  slain  warriors  are 

first  worn. 

1064  Tula  under  Huemac  is  destroyed  because  of  the  wicked  magic. 

The  people  disperse. 

1070   The  power  of  Tula  broken  completely,  Huemac  commits  suicide  in 
Chapultepec. 

Some  authorities  shift  the  entire  series  of  dates  in  this 
summary  backward  one  52  year  period,  making  the 
first  dale  674  A.  D.  and  the  last  one  1018  A.  D.  This 
seems  unjustifiable  in  view  of  the  continuous  counting 
of  every  year  in  this  chronicle  down  to  the  coming  of  the 
Spaniards  in  1519. 

Of  course  this  summary  does  not  actually  cover  the 
range  of  Toltecan  history.  Such  cities  as  Teotihuacan 
and  Xochicalco  may  well  have  seen  their  prime  before 
Tula  became  important  while  certain  other  popula- 
tions such  as  Colhuacan,  Atzcapotzalco  and  Cholula 
doubtless  carried  the  civilization  of  the  Toltecs  down 
into  times  much  later  than  the  suicide  of  Huemac. 
Checking  up  Mexican  dates  with  the  more  accurate, 
chronology  of  the  Mayas  it  may  be  pointed  out  that 
the  period  of  Mexican  influence  in  Northern  Yucatan 
seems  to  have  begun  about  1200  A.  D.  The  Mexican 
mercenaries  who  enlisted  in  the  aid  of  Mayapan 
defeated  the  ruling  house  at  Chichen  Itza  in  the  tenth 
year  of  Katun  8  Ahau,  or  about  1196  A.  D.  This  date 
is  126  years  after  the  recorded  downfall  of  Tula,  yet  cer- 
tain structural  and  decorative  details  of  the  buildings 
erected  at  Chichen  Itza  by  these  foreign  overlords  find 
their  closest  analogues  at  Tula.  Other  details  point  to 
the  somewhat  later  epoch  of  Tezcoco.  Curiously 
enough,  no  record  of  this  far-reaching  conquest  seems 
to  have  been  preserved  on  the  highlands  of  Mexico.  . 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS  153 

Archaeology  tells  a  more  convincing  tale  as  regards 
the  Toltecs  than  does  history  herself.  In  the  stratified 
remains  at  Atzcapotzalco  the  objects  made  by  the 
Toltecs  overlie  those  of  the  first  potters  of  the  Archaic 
Period  and  are  in  striking  contrast  to  them.  The  prin- 
cipal motives  seen  in  Toltecan  decorative  art  owe  an 
obvious  debt  to  the  earlier  and  more  brilliant  work  of 
the  Mayas. 

The  pyramids  of  the  Toltecs  exceed  in  size  those  of 
the  Mayas,  but  are  of  inferior  construction,  adobe  bricks 
with  concrete  facings  taking  the  place  of  rubble  and 
cut  stone.  The  temples  that  crowned  these  pyramids 
were  also  of  less  solid  character  and  no  single  example 
is  now  intact.  Vaulted  ceilings  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  used,  but  instead  flat,  timbered  ceilings  or  high 
pitched  roofs  of  thatch.  Sometimes  two  or  more 
columns  were  placed  within  the  room  to  support  the  roof 
beams.  The  groundplans  of  buildings  other  than 
temples,  show  small  rooms  arranged  in  an  irregular 
fashion  around  courts. 

A  ceremonial  game  that  resembled  basket  ball  was 
an  important  feature  of  Toltecan  religion.  Two  rings 
were  set  vertically  in  the  walls  that  flanked  a  level 
space  and  the  object  of  the  game  was  to  make  the  rub- 
ber ball  pass  through  one  of  the  rings.  This  sacred 
game  spread  far  and  wide.  It  was  introduced  into 
northern  Yucatan  and  the  most  elaborate  ball  court  of 
all  was  built  at  Chichen  Itza.  /  Another  special  feature 
of  Toltecan  religion  was  the  worship  of  the  sun  disk 
which  was  passed  on  to  the  later  civilizations  of  Mexico, 
and  which  likewise  was  carried  to  Yucatan.]  Prayers 
are  commonly  represented  in  Toltecan  sculptures  by  the 
device  of  the  "speech  scroll"  which  issues  from  the 
mouth  of  the  speaker  and  pictures  forth  what  his 
desires  are. 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS  155 

Xochicalco.  Let  us  now  pass  over  in  brief  review 
several  ruins  which  belong  to  the  Toltecan  period. 
Xochicalco,  the  House  of  the  Flowers,  is  a  large  ruin 
near  Cuernavaca.  The  position  seems  to  have  been 
chosen  primarily  for  defense.  The  rounded  ridge  that 
drops  off  into  deep  valleys  on  either  side  is  laid  out  in 
courts,  terraces,  and  pyramids.  Only  one  building 
offers  evidence  of  the  sculptural  skill  of  the  ancient 
habitants.  It  is  a  temple,  standing  upon  a  rather  low 
platform  mound.  The  sides  of  the  platform  mound 
are  decorated  with  great  plumed  serpents,  seated  human 
figures,  hieroglyphs,  etc.  Parts  of  the  sculptures  also 
remain  on  the  low  walls  of  the  temples  itself  which  is 
now  roofless.  The  stone  carving  at  Xochicalco  re- 
sembles that  of  Monte  Alban  especially  as  regards  the 
hieroglyphs. 

San  Juan  Teotihuacan.  The  great  ruin  of 
Teotihuacan  is  located  on  the  eastern  margin  of  the 
Valley  of  Mexico.  The  principal  features  of  Teotihuacan 
are  two  great  pyramids  and  a  straight  roadway  lined 
with  small  pyramids.  There  are  also  several  groups 
of  buildings  of  which  the  lower  walls  and  the  bases  of  the 
piers  are  still  to  be  seen  as  well  as  some  interesting 
fragments  of  fresco  painting.  The  smaller  of  the  two 
great  pyramids  is  called  the  Pyramid  of  the  Moon. 
It  is  located  at  the  end  of  the  roadway  which  is  com- 
monly called  the  Pathway  of  the  Dead.  The  Pyramid 
of  the  Sun  is  situated  on  the  east  side  of  the  roadway. 
This  pyramid  is  about  180  feet  in  height  and  rises  in 
four  sloping  terraces.  The  temple  which  formerly 
crowned  its  summit  has  entirely  disappeared.  Explo- 
rations conducted  by  the  Mexican  government  showed 
that  this  pyramid  was  enlarged  from  time  to  time  and 
old  stairways  buried  under  new  masonry.  On  the 


Plate  XXX.  (a)  The  Temple  at  Xochicalco  after  Restoration  by 
the  Mexican  Government;  (6)  Partial  View  of  the  Great  Pyramid  at 
Cholula  which  Rises  from  the  Level  Plain  in  Three  Broad  Terraces. 
A  Spanish  church  has  been  built  upon  the  top  of  this  pyramid  and  a 
roadway  leads  up  the  badly  eroded  mound. 


156 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS 


157 


south  side  of  the  small  stream  that  flows  through  the 
ruins  is  a  group  of  buildings  called  the  Citadel. 

A  few  large  sculptures  have  been  found  at  Teoti- 
huacan.  But  the  site  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  pottery 
figurines  and  heads  that  are  picked  up  by  thousands. 
The  heads  present  such  a  marked  variety  of  facial 
contour  and  expression  that  it  would  seem  as  if  every 
race  under  the  sun  had  served  as  models.  It  is  very 
likely  that  these  heads  formed  part 
of  votive  offerings,  beings  attached 
to  bodies  made  of  some  perishable 
material.  The  heads  were  seldom 
used  to  adorn  pottery  vessels,  al- 
though many  modern  and  fraudu- 
lent vases  are  so  adorned.  Dolls 
with  head  and  torso  in  one  piece 
and  with  movable  arms  and  legs 
made  of  separate  pieces  were 
known.  The  face  of  Tlaloc,  the 
Rain  God,  is  fairly  common  in 
Teotihuacan  pottery  but  other 
deities  have  not  surely  been  identi- 
fied. It  is  not  improbable  that  the 
God  of  Fire  is  personified  as  an  old 
Fig.  55.  Jointed  man  with  wrinkled  face,  and  that 

Doll  of  Clay  from  San  xipe,  Lord  of  the  Flayed,  is  repre- 
Juan  Teotihuacan.  _  .  ,  „  ,11 

sented  in  the  faces   that  look  out 

through  the  three  holes  of  a  mask.  The  jaguar,  the 
monkey,  the  owl,  and  other  animals  are  also  modeled 
with  excellent  fidelity.  The  Mayan  convention  of  the 
human  face  in  the  open  jaws  of  the  serpent  is  not  un- 
known. 

A  number  of  beautiful  vases  painted  in  soft  greens, 
pinks,  and  yellows  have  been  recovered  at  Teotihuacan. 


158  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

These  colors  would  not  stand  the  kiln  and  they  were 
applied  after  the  vessel  had  been  burned.  According 
to  one  method,  the  outside  of  the  vessel  was  covered 
with  a  fine  coating  of  plaster  upon  which  the  design 
was  painted  exactly  as  in  fresco.  According  to  a  second 
method  the  effect  of  cloisonne  was  cleverly  achieved. 
This  technique  is  most  characteristic  of  the  region 
northwest  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico  and  will  be  described 
later.  Incised  or  engraved  designs  are  commonly  met 
with  on  pottery  vessels  at  Teotihuacan. 

Tula.  The  ancient  city  of  Tula  or  Tollan,  the 
Place  of  the  Reeds,  is  situated  about  fifty  miles  north  of 
Mexico  City.  Building  stone  of  good  quality  was  avail- 
able at  this  site  and  in  consequence  sculptures  are  more 
plentiful  than  at  Teotihuacan.  Particularly  famous  are 
the  great  sculptured  columns  which  represent  feathered 
serpents  and  gigantic  human  figures.  The  drums  are 
mostly  mortised  and  the  columns  are  crowned  by  true 
capitals.  These  architectural  features  at  Tula  find  their 
closest  counterpart  at  the  Mayan  city  of  Chichen  Itza 
in  northern  Yucatan.  The  tlachtli  or  ball  court  occurs 
at  Tula  and  the  groundplans  of  complicated  "palaces" 
can  also  be  made  out. 

Gholula.  The  sacred  city  of  Cholula,  in  the  en- 
virons of  Puebla,  is  chiefly  famous  for  its  great  pyramid. 
This  structure  is  more  or  less  irregular  in  shape  but  the 
base  averages  more  than  a  thousand  feet  on  the  side  and 
the  total  height,  now  somewhat  reduced,  was  probably 
close  to  two  hundred  feet  above  the  plain.  Compared 
with  the  Pyramid  of  Cheops,  it  covers  nearly  twice  as 
much  ground  and  has  a  much  greater  volume,  but  lacks 
of  course,  in  height.  As  already  noted,  the  pyramids  of 
the  New  World  are  simply  foundations  for  temples  and 
thus  always  have  flat  tops.  The  great  mound  of  Cholu-. 


W 

Plate  XXXI.  (a)  Pottery  Plates  from  Cholula  with  Decorations 
in  Several  Colors.  The  pottery  of  Cholula  ranks  high  in  design  and 
color;  (6)  A  View  at  La  Quemada.  Cylindrical  columns  built  up  of 
slabs  of  stone  supported  the  roofs  of  some  of  the  structures.  The 
use  of  columns  was  characteristic  of  late  Toltecan  times. 


159 


160  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

la  is  a  solid  mass  of  adobe  bricks  of  uniform  size  laid  in 
adobe  mortar.  The  pyramid  was  evidently  faced  with 
a  thick  layer  of  cement  of  which  a  few  patches  still 
remain.  Two  other  large  mounds  exist  at  Cholula.  One 
of  these  has  been  partially  destroyed  and  now  stands  as 
a  vertical  mass  of  adobe  bricks  while  the  other  is  over- 
grown with  brush  and  cactus. 

Unlike  the  other  Toltecan  cities  Cholula  was  still  in- 
habited and  a  place  of  religious  importance  when  Cortez, 
arrived  in  Mexico.  But  the  figurines  and  pottery  ves- 
sels that  are  found  at  this  site  belong  for  the  most  part 
to  an  epoch  earlier  than  that  of  the  Aztecs.  Quetzal- 
coatl  was  the  patron  deity  of  Cholula  and  in  the  decor- 
ative art  the  serpent  is  finely  conventionalized.  A  pot- 
tery shape  frequently  met  with  at  Cholula  is  the  flat 
plate  bearing  polychrome  designs. 

The  Frontier  Cities  of  the  Northwest.  An  im- 
portant culture  area  is  located  upon  the  northwestern, 
limits  of  the  area  of  high  culture  in  ancient  Mexico. 
The  best  known  and  most  accessible  ruin  is  La  Quema- 
da,  "The  Burned"  which  is  situated  a  day's  ride  from 
the  city  of  Zacatecas.  This  site  was  found  in  a  de- 
serted and  ruinous  condition  by  the  Spaniards  in  1535 
and  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  had  been  abandoned 
several  centuries  previous.  La  Quemada  has  been 
popularly  associated  with  Chiconoztoc,  "The  Seven 
Caves,"  a  place  famous  in  Aztecan  mythology,  but  this 
association  rests  upon  no  scientific  basis.  It  is  simply 
an  unauthoritative  attempt  to  invest  a  forgotten  city 
with  a  legendary  interest.  Chiconoztoc,  where  the 
Aztecs  came  out  of  the  underworld  might  be  compared 
with  our  own  Garden  of  Eden  and  its  exact  location  is 
just  as  much  an  eternal  riddle.  La  Quemada  is  a  ter- 
raced hill  resembling  Monte  Alban  and  Xochicalco. 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS  161 

The  retaining  walls  of  terraces  and  pyramids  as  well 
as  the  walls  of  buildings  are  still  well  preserved.  These 
walls  consist  of  slabs  of  stone  set  in  a  mortar  of  red 
earth.  Perhaps  the  most  noteworthy  structure  is  a 
wide  hall  containing  seven  columns  built  of  slabs  of 
stone  in  the  same  manner  as  the  walls.  All  in  all  the 
architectural  types  as  well  as  the  observed  contacts  in 
art  point  to  a  late  epoch  of  the  Toltecan  period.  Other 
ruins  of  the  same  character  as  La  Quemada  occur  at 
Chalchihuites  on  the  frontier  of  Durango  and  at 
Totoate,  etc.,  in  northern  Jalisco. 

The  most  important  artistic  product  from  this  north- 
western region  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  pottery  which  might 
be  described  as  cloisonne  or  encaustic  ware.  Exam- 
ination shows  that  this  pottery  was  first  burned  in  the 
usual  way  so  that  it  acquired  a  red  or  orange  color. 
Then  the  surface  was  covered  with  a  layer  of  greenish  or 
blackish  pigment  to  the  depth  of  perhaps  a  sixteenth  of 
an  inch.  A  large  part  of  this  surface  layer  was  then 
carefully  cut  away  with  a  sharp  blade  in  such  a  way  that 
the  remaining  portions  outlined  certain  geometric  and 
realistic  figures.  The  sunken  spaces,  from  which  the 
material  had  just  been  removed,  were  then  filled  in 
flush  with  red,  yellow,  white,  and  green  pigments.  The 
designs  on  this  class  of  pottery  are  thus  mosaics  in  which 
the  different  colors  are  separated  by  narrow  lines  of  a 
neutral  tint.  The  geometric  motives  show  a  marked  use 
of  the  terrace,  the  fret,  and  the  scroll.  The  realistic  sub- 
jects are  presented  in  a  highly  conventionalized  manner 
and  have  few  stylistic  similarities  to  the  figures  from  the 
Valley  of  Mexico.  Representative  collections  of  this 
ware  from  Totoate,  already  referred  to,  and  from  Estan- 
suela,  a  hacienda  near  Guadalajara  are  on  exhibition. 

Cloisonne  pottery  of  a  somewhat  different  style 
sometimes  occurs  at  Toltecan  sites  in  the  Valley  of 


162  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

Mexico,  such  as  Tula,  Teotihuacan,  and  Atzcapotzalco, 
but  fresco  pottery  which  resembles  it  at  first  glance  is 
more  characteristic.  It  appears  that  the  cloisonne 
process  was  taken  over  from  the  embellishment  of 
gourd  dishes  in  connection  with  which  it  still  exists 
over  a  large  part  of  Mexico  and  Central  America 
(Michoacan  to  Guatemala). 


Fig.  56.  Vessel  with  "Cloisonne"  Decoration  in  Heavy 
Pigments.  This  example  comes  from  a  mound  at  Atzca- 
potzalco and  apparently  dates  from  late  Toltecan  times. 

Another  process  taken  over  from  gourd  decoration 
is  that  of  negative  painting.  This  likewise  still  exists 
as  regards  gourd  dishes  although  discontinued  as  re- 
gards pottery.  Negative  painting  appears  to  be  an 
ancient  process  of  exceedingly  wide  distribution.  It 
is  especially  common  in  Jalisco  and  Michoacan,  the 
Valley  of  Toluca,  Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  Panama,  and 
Colombia,  and  sometimes  occurs  in  Yucatan  and  Peru. 
The  process  was  to  paint  the  design  in  wax  or  some 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS  163 

other  soluble  or  combustible  paint,  then  to  cover  the 
entire  surface  with  a  permanent  paint.  When  the  pot 
was  burned  the  design  came  out  in  the  natural  color 
of  the  clay  against  a  black,  or  sometimes  a  red  field. 


Fig.  57.     The  Turtle  Motive  as  developed  in  Negative  Painting 
with  Wax  at  Totoate,  Jalisco. 

The  design  was  often  made  two  layers  deep  by  applying 
simple  masses  of  red  over  the  sizing  before  the  imper- 
manent paint  of  the  design  proper  was  put  on.  In 
the  northwestern  region  of  central  Mexico  now  under 
consideration  the  negative  painting  technique  is  asso- 
ciated with  conventionalized  designs  representing  tur- 


164 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


ties  (Fig.  57).  Another  ware  with  designs  in  white  is 
concerned  with  derivatives  of  the  turtle  motive.  Then 
there  are  the  remarkable  copper  bells  in  the  form  of 
turtles  made  by  coiling,  that  have  been  found  in 

nearby  Michoacan. 

It  is  difficult  to 
place  time  limits  for 
the  artistic  styles  that 
once  existed  in  this 
northwestern  region. 
The  archaic  culture 
seems  to  have  lasted 
longer  here  than  far- 
ther south,  next  fol- 
lowed the  northern 
flow  of  Toltecan  cul- 
ture which  later  re- 
ceded and  finally  came 
a  rather  thin  layer  of 
Chichimecan  or  Az- 
tecan  culture.  We 
may  tentatively  con- 
clude that  the  forgotten  cities  of  the  Zacatecan  sub- 
culture flourished  after  1000  A.  D.  The  question 
should  be  settled  because  of  its  connection  with  the 
dating  of  Pueblo  ruins  farther  north. 

Santa  Lucia  Cozumalhualpa.  The  peculiar 
stone  sculptures  of  Santa  Lucia  Cozumalhualpa  and  a 
number  of  adjacent  sites  in  southern  Guatemala  and 
western  Salvador  have  been  accredited  to  the  Pipiles,  a 
southern  Nahuan  tribe.  This  local  culture  probably 
flourished  long  after  the  Mayan  cities  of  the  south  had 
been  abandoned  and  while  the  Toltecs  in  the  north  were 
at  the  height  of  their  power.  The  art  shows  many  f ea- 


Fig.  58.     Jaguar    Head    on    Disk- 
Shaped  Stone.     Salvador. 


i 


Plate  XXXII.  Stone  Slab  from  an  Ancient  Sepulcher  in  the 
State  of  Guerrero.  The  face  at  the  top  apparently  represents  a 
monkey,  but  serpents  have  been  introduced  between  the  eyes  and 

the   eyebrows.     The   other  highly   conventionalized   faces   are 

probably  those  of  serpents. 


165 


166  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

tures  similar  to  that  of  the  Mexican  highlands.  Human 
sacrifice  is  prominently  figured  in  the  sculptures. 
There  are  also  scrolls  which  issue  from  the  mouths  and 
stand  for  speech.  Divinities  are  sometimes  shown  at 
the  tops  of  the  sculptured  slabs  in  the  mouths  of  rep- 
tiles and  to  these  divinities  the  priests  standing  below 
make  offerings. 

A  peculiar  type  of  pottery  centered  in  southern  Guate- 
mala and  western  Salvador  from  which  region  it  was 
distributed  far  and  wide  by  trade.  Although  a  few 
examples  of  this  ware  are  found  at  Copan  it  is  clear  from 
the  designs  that  most  of  the  pieces  belong  to  a  time 
subsequent  to  the  abandonment  of  this  Mayan  city. 
The  ware  has  a  semi-glaze  which  is  the  result  of  lead 
in  the  clay.  Because  paint  could  not  be  applied  to  this 
ware,  esthetic  idea  of  shape  was  allowed  to  develop 
itself  without  hindrance. 

The  Chorotegan  Culture.  Passing  south  from 
the  Mayan  area  we  find  in  Salvador  and  Central  Honduras 
archaeological  objects  that  can  hardly  be  distinguished 
from  the  classical  products  of  Copan.  Still  farther 
south  remains  are  found  of  a  rich  and  in  many  ways 
peculiar  art — consisting  almost  entirely  of  pottery  and 
minor  stone  carvings — that  centers  about  the  southern 
end  of  Lake  Nicaragua  and  the  Gulf  of  Nicoya.  It 
may  be  ascribed  principally  to  tribes  speaking  the 
Chiapanecan  language  and  it  may  be  fittingly  called 
Chorotegan  after  one  of  the  principal  tribes. 

Close  analysis  shows  that  many  of  the  decorative 
motives  in  Chorotegan  art  were  developed  from  those 
of  the  Mayas.  The  serpent  and  the  monkey  furnish 
the  majority  of  the  designs  that  are  surely  Mayan  but 
each  of  these  is  carried  so  far  away  from  the  original 
that  only  an  expert  can  see  the  connections.  The  arms 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS 


167 


and  legs  of  the  monkeys  are  lengthened  and  given  an 
extra  number  of  joints  while  the  heads  degenerate  into 
circles.  The  tongues  of  the  serpents  are  elongated  and 


1             ,,„,.„;  i,,     \  { 

Will. 

:      HI 

Fig.  59.  Front  View  and  Profile  View  Serpent  Heads  in  Chorote- 
gan  Art.  Although  derived  from  Mayan  models  they  have  under- 
gone great  changes  and  have  become  highly  conventionalized. 

bent  downward  at  the  end.     All  the  open  spaces  are 
treated  with  scallops  or  fringes  of  short  lines. 

There  is  also  in  Chorotegan  art  a  crocodilian  motive 
that  may  be  peculiar  to  the  Isthmian  region  although 
it  has  Mayan  affinities.  The  jaguar  is  also  important 
in  this  ancient  art.  Among  the  most  interesting  vases 
are  those  that  have  a  modeled  head  projecting  from  one 
side  (jaguar,  monkey,  or  bird)  and  two  of  the  three 
legs  of  the  vessel  modified  into  animal  legs.  On  these 
elaborate  vessels  there  are  bands  of  painted  decoration 
most  concerned  with  the  crocodile. 


168 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


The  extremely  elaborate  metates  (stones  upon  which 
maize  was  ground)  from  southern  Nicaragua  and  north- 
ern Costa  Rica  probably  were  made  by  the  producers  of 
the  peculiar  pottery  art  already  described.  These  were 


Fig.  60.     Jkguar  design  associated  with  Figurines  that  still  retain 
Archaic  Characters.    Costa  Rica. 


Fig.  61.     Crocodiles  from  painted  Nicoyan  Vases. 

carved  out  of  solid  blocks  of  lava  with  stone  tools. 
It  is  not  unlikely  that  these  elaborate  metates  were  used 
as  ceremonial  seats  since  few  of  them  show  signs  of  use. 
The  jaguar  is  perhaps  the  most  common  motive  used 
in  the  decoration  of  these  metates.  The  back  is  broad 


tyy 


v-"-^          — 

.  ~^2     •  +» 

a  -^  S/S 

1  g  &*bd 

'£  —  ^l-l 

0-73  S3 
~ 


O  +j   *   °3 

" 


o  e  >  o  ^ 
g  o  5  o  ^ 


g  Pi  8.1 

cEfeH-3'3 


109 


170 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


and  slightly  dished,  the  head  projects  from  the  center 
of  one  end  and  the  tail  swings  in  a  curve  from  the  other 
end  to  one  of  the  feet. 

At  Mercedes  remarkable  stone  slabs  were  found  dur- 
ing the  excavations  conducted  by  Mr.  Minor  C.  Keith. 
These  are  now  on  exhibition  in  the  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History.  The  sculptures  in  relief  on  these 
slabs  are  by  all  odds  the  finest  from  the  Isthmian  area. 
Human  beings,  crocodiles,  monkeys  and  birds  are  all 


Fig.  62.  Highly  Conventionalized  Crocodile  Motive.  The  prin- 
cipal features  of  the  head  as  well  as  the  outline  of  the  leg  survive  in 
highly  modified  form.  From  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Nicaragua. 


used  to  decorate  these  carefully  and  laboriously  made 
pieces  whose  use  is  entirely  unknown.  Statues  in  the 
full  round  have  also  been  unearthed  in  quantity  at  Mer- 
cedes which  gives  every  evidence  of  having  been  a  large 
city  with  a  long  career. 

We  may  be  reasonably  sure  that  the  stone  slabs  date 
from  a  fairly  late  epoch  because  an  undoubted  "Chac- 
mool"  exhibiting  the  same  style  of  carving  has  been  dis- 
covered here.  The  "Chacmool,"  a  half  reclining  figure 
with  the  knees  drawn  up,  the  body  supported  in  part 
upon  the  elbows  and  a  bowl  for  incense  or  other  offer- 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS 


171 


ings  in  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  gets  its  fanciful  name 
from  Le  Plongeon  who  discovered  the  original  at  Chi- 
chen  Itza.  But  the  unmistakable  sculptures  of  this 


Fig.  63.     Simple  Crocodile  Figures  in  Red  Lines  on  Dishes  from 
Mercedes,  Costa  Rica. 


Fig.  64.     Panels  containing  Crocodiles  painted  in  White  Lines  on 
Large  Tripod  Bowls  from  Mercedes,  Costa  Rica. 


Fig.  65.     Simplified  Crocodile  Heads  in  the  Yellow  Line  Ware  of 
Mercedes,  Costa  Rica. 

type  were  apparently  developed  by  the  highland  tribes 
and  the  cult  was  introduced  into  northern  Yucatan  dur- 
ing the  period  of  Mexican  influence.  In  addition  to 
Chichen  Itza  examples  have  been  found  at  Cempoalan, 


172 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


the  historic  Totonacan  capital  near  Vera  Cruz,  at 
Tezcoco,  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  at  Jhuatzio  in  the 
Tarascan  region,  as  well  as  at  Ahuachapan  far  to  the 
southeast  in  Salvador.  All  of  these  occurrences  indicate 
a  late  Toltecan  horizon  for  its  distribution. 


Fig.  66.     Conventional  Crocodiles  from  Costa  Rica  and  Panama. 

Isthmian  Gold  Work.  The  "  wire  technique  "  of 
the  gold  art  of  the  Isthmian  region,  reflects,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  pottery  technique  of  the  Archaic  Horizon.  In 
addition  to  plain  and  hollow  casting,  two  kinds  of  gold 
plating  were  carried  to  perfection  by  the  ancient  metal 
workers :  one  a  heavy  plating  over  copper  and  the  other 
a  thin  gilding.  The  manner  in  which  this  plating  was 
done  is  still  uncertain.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the 
molds  were  lined  with  leaf  gold  or  sprinkled  with  gold 
dust  before  the  baser  copper  was  poured  in.  Many 


Plate  XXXIV.  (a)  The  Gold  Work  of  the  Ancient  Mexicans 
excited  the  Wonder  of  the  Spanish  Conquerors.  Comparatively 
few  examples,  however,  have  come  down  to  us;  (6)  Many  Ornaments 
of  Gold  are  found  in  the  Graves  of  Costa  Rica  and  Panama.  The 
Keith  Collection  contains  a  very  fine  series  of  these  pieces  illustrating 
all  the  forms  as  well  as  the  technical  processes. 

173 


174  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

ornaments  are  of  pure  beaten  gold  and  have  designs  in 
repousse. 

'  The  gold  objects  are  found  in  stone  box  graves  along 
with  pottery  and  stone  carvings.  Gold  is  taken  from 
only  a  small  percentage  of  the  graves,  probably  those  of 
chiefs.  A  systematic  rifling  of  the  ancient  cemeteries 
has  been  going  on  since  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  but 
the  finds  have  mostly  been  thrown  into  the  melting  pot. 
The  burial  places  are  sometimes  marked  by  low  plat- 
forms built  over  a  group  of  graves.  An  iron  rod  giving 
forth  a  hollow  sound  when  the  stone  cysts  are  struck  is 
used  by  the  searchers.  Human  bones  are  found  in  these 
graves,  but  seldom  in  a  state  of  good  preservation. 

Mr.  Minor  C.  Keith's  collection  of  gold  work  from 
Costa  Rica  and  Panama  is  unexcelled  and  illustrates 
the  range  of  technical  processes  as  well  as  of  ornamental 
forms.  Human  forms  are  represented  with  peculiar 
headdresses  and  with  various  objects  carried  in  the 
hands  and  often  they  are  joined  in  pairs.  Many  of  the 
most  beautiful  amulets  are  frogs  arranged  either  singly 
or  in  groups  of  two  or  three.  These  figures  are  all  pro- 
vided with  a  ring  on  the  under  side  for  suspension. 
Lizards,  turtles,  and  crocodiles  are  frequently  modeled 
as  well  as  clam  shells,  crabs,  and  monkeys.  But  per- 
haps the  most  frequent  amulets  are  those  that  picture 
birds  with  outspread  wings  among  which  may  be 
recognized  vultures,  harpy  eagles,  gulls,  man-of-war 
birds,  and  parrots.  The  larger  and  more  elaborate 
pieces  of  gold  work  cast  considerable  light  on  the  ancient 
religion  of  the  natives  since  beast  gods  are  figured  in 
half  human  form.  Bells  of  copper  and  gold  were  much 
used  in  gala  dress  and  were  doubtless  an  object  of  trade 
with  the  tribes  farther  north. 

In  this  consideration  of  the  lesser  civilizations  that 


THE  LESSER  CIVILIZATIONS  175 

are  mostly  to  be  attributed  to  the  stimulus  furnished  by 
the  Mayas  we  have  been  carried  forward  in  time  until 
arrived  at  a  point  where  tradition  and  ethnology  begin 
to  relieve  the  burden  of  proof  that  has  hitherto  been 
placed  on  archaeology.  We  will  now  devote  most  of 
our  attention  to  belief  and  ceremony  as  given  first  hand 
rather  than  to  assumptions  from  art. 


CHAPTER  iy 
THE  AZTECS 

THE  Aztecs  were  the  dominant  nation  on  the  high- 
lands of  Mexico  when  Cortez  marched  with  his 
small  army  to  conquer  New  Spain.  The  horrible  sacri- 
fices that  they  made  to  their  gods  and  the  wealth  and 
barbaric  splendor  of  their  rulers  have  often  been  de- 
scribed. But  their  history  in  point  of  .time  covered 
short  space  and  their  art  and  religion  was  based  in  a 
large  measure  on  achievements  of  the  nations  that  had 
preceded  them. 

Mayas  and  Aztecs  compared  to  Greeks  and 
Romans.  A  remarkably  close  analogy  may  be 
drawn  between  the  Mayas  and  Aztecs  in  the  New 
World  and  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  the  Old,  as 
regards  character,  achievements,  and  relations  one  to 
the  other.  /  The  Mayas,  like  the  Greeks,  were  an 
artistic  and  Intellectual  people  who  developed  sculp- 
ture, painting,  architecture,  astronomy,  and  other 
arts  and  sciences  to  a  high  plane.  Politically,  both 
were  divided  into  communities  or  states  that 
bickered  and  quarreled.  There  were  temporary  leagues 
between  certain  cities,  but  real  unity  only  against  a 
common  enemy.  Culturally,  both  were  one  people,  in 
spite  of  dialectic  differences,  for  the  warring  factions 
were  bound  together  by  a  common  religion  and  a 
common  thought//  To  be  sure  the  religion  of  the 
Mayas  was  muchmore  barbaric  than  that  of  the  Greeks 
but  in  each  case  the  subject  matter  was  idealized  and 
beautified  in  art. 

The  Aztecs,  like  the  Romans,  were  a  brusque  and  war- 
like people  who  built  upon  the  ruins  of  an  earlier  civili- 

177 


Plate  XXXV.  A  Page  from  the  Tribute  Roll  of  Moctezuma,  show- 
ing the  Annual  Tribute  of  the  Eleven  Towns  pictured  at  the  Bottom  and 
Left.  The  tribute  consisted  of:  (a)  Two  strings  of  jade  beads;  (6) 
Twenty  gourd  dishes  of  gold  dust;  (c)  A  royal  headdress;  (d)  Eight 
hundred  bunches  of  feathers;  (e)  Forty  bags  of  cochineal  dye;  (f-g) 
Warriors'  costumes;  (h)  Four  hundred  and  two  blankets  of  this  pattern; 
(i)  Four  hundred  blankets;  (j)  Four  hundred  and  four  blankets;  (k) 
Four  hundred  blankets.  The  towns  are:  (1)  Coaxalahuacan;  (2) 
Texopan;  (3)  Tamozolapan;  (4)  Yancuitlan;  (5)  Tezuzcululan;  (6) 
Nochistlan;  (7)  Xaltepec;  (8)  Tamazolan;  (9)  Mictlan  (Mitla);  (10) 
Coaxomulcu;  (11)  Cuicatlan,  in  the  State  of  Oaxaca. 

178 


THE  AZTECS  179 

zation  that  fell  before  the  force  of  their  arms  and  who 
made  their  most  notable  contributions  to  organization 
and  government.  The  Toltecs  stand  just  beyond  the 
foreline  of  Aztecan  history  and  may  fitly  be  compared 
to  the  Etruscans.  They  were  the  possessors  of  a  culture 
derived  in  part  from  their  brilliant  contemporaries  that 
was  magnified  to  true  greatness  by  their  ruder  suc- 
cessors. • 

The  Chichimecas.  The  term  Chichimecas  was  ap- 
plied by  the  more  civilized  tribes  of  the  Mexican  high- 
lands to  those  nomads  outside  the  pale  who  dressed  in 
skins  and  hunted  with  the  bow  and  arrow.  Some  of 
these  wandering  groups  spoke  Nahuan  dialects,  but  the 
term  was  also  applied  to  the  Otomis  who  spoke  a  dis- 
tinct language.  Possibly  through  having  been  reduced 
in  war  certain  of  these  wandering  groups  were  drawn 
into  civilization  and  when  the  Toltecan  cities  began  to 
decline,  they  advanced  to  considerable  power  and  pres- 
tige. In  fact,  the  Aztecs  may  be  considered  as  originally 
Chichimecan,  although  several  other  tribes  got  an 
earlier  start.  In  later  times,  these  city -broken  nomads 
looked  back  with  considerable  pride  on  their  lowly 
origin. 

The  Chichimecan  histories  contain  numerous  genea- 
logical lists  of  the  ruling  houses  in  different  towns  and 
settlements.  The  most  valuable  document  is  the 
Annals  of  Quauhtitlan  that  has  already  received  some 
attention  for  its  references  to  Toltecan  rulers.  Quauh- 
titlan itself  was  confessedly  one  of  the  seats  of  the 
Chichimecas  and  its  recorded  history  goes  back  to 
Chicontonatiuh  who  began  his  rule  in  687  A.D.  and  died 
in  751.  After  the  death  of  this  chief  there  was  an  inter- 
regnum till  Tactli  formed  a  government  in  804.  He 
also  had  a  long  reign  and  the  chronicle  naively  states : — 


Plate  XXXVI.  Page  from  the  Codex  Telleriano  Remensis  show- 
ing a  Native  Manuscript  with  Explication  by  the  Spaniards.  The 
death  of  Chamalpopoca  and  the  election  of  his  successor,  Itzcoatl, 
is  recorded,  as  well  as  the  capture  of  Atzcapotzalco. 


180 


THE  AZTECS  181 

"In  this  same  year  (10  House,  865)  died  Tactli  who 
was  the  king  of  Quauhtitlan  where  he  reigned  62  years : 
he  was  a  king  unacquainted  with  the  sowing  of  grain  for 
food  neither  did  he  know  how  to  make  shelters  for  his 
subjects.  He  wore  only  a  simple  garb.  The  people  ate 
only  birds,  serpents,  rabbits  and  deer:  as  yet  they  had 
no  houses  and  came  and  went  in  all  directions."  The 
early  life  in  the  open  is  pictured  interestingly  in  several 
other  documents  including  the  Map  of  Tlotzin  and  the 
Map  of  Quinatzin. 

We  have  already  seen  how  the  splendid  culture  of  the 
Toltecan  cities  broke  down  under  the  weight  of  decad- 
ence and  civil  war  during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  A.D.  To  be  sure,  Cholula  appears  to  have 
kept  alive  the  flame  of  Toltecan  religion  and  art  up  to 
the  advent  of  the  Spaniards.  Perhaps  Atzcapotzalco 
and  other  towns  near  the  lakes  that  had  been  established 
during  the  Toltecan  period  were  able  to  hold  their  own 
for  a  time  against  the  newer  order.  But  the  sturdy 
Chichimecas  made  rapid  progress.  Tezcoco  became 
their  most  prominent  city  only  to  be  eclipsed  by  Tenoch- 
titlan,  the  island  capital  of  the  Aztecs. 

Aztecan  History.  The  history  of  the  Aztecs  has  a 
mythological  preamble  in  common  with  other  nations  of 
Mexico.  The  Chiconoztoc  or  Seven  Caves  must  not  be 
considered  historical  but  simply  man's  place  of  emer- 
gence from  the  underworld.  The  general  conception  of 
an  existence  within  the  earth  that  preceded  the  exist-! 
ence  upon  the  earth  is  found  very  widely  among  North (1 
American  Indians.  It  is  likewise  impossible  to  locate 
the  Island  of  Aztlan,  that  served,  according  to  several 
codices,  as  the  starting  place  of  the  Mexican  migration. 
The  northern  origin  for  the  Aztecan  tribe  to  which  so 
much  attention  has  been  paid  need  not  have  been  far 


182  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

from  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  since  in  their  entire  recorded 
peregrination  they  hardly  traveled  eighty  miles. 

Owing  to  the  ineffectiveness  of  the  Mexican  time 
count;  Aztecan  chronology  is  far  from  fixed.  The  year 
was  known  by  the  day  with  which  it  began  and  as  this 
day  ran  the  permutation  of  four  names  and  thirteen 
numbers  the  cycle  was  fifty-two  years  in  length.  No 
method  of  keeping  the  cycles  in  their  proper  order  seems 
to  have  been  devised  except  the  laborious  one  of  put- 
ting down  every  year  in  sequence  whether  or  not  an 
event  occurred  in  it.  Unfortunately,  not  even  the 
latter  method  was  used  in  any  far-reaching  chronicle 
except  the  Annals  of  Quauhtitlan.  According  to 
different  authorities  the  year  1  Stone  which  marks  the 
historical  account  in  the  Aubin  Codex  was  648,  1064, 
or  1168  in  the  European  calendar,  each  date  differing 
from  the  others  by  multiples  of  fifty-two  years. 

The  wandering  tribes,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Chalca,  Xochimilca,  Tlahnica,  Huexotzinca, 
Tepaneca,  and  Azteca,  pushed  their  way  into  the  region 
of  the  lakes  and  made  settlements  in  less  desirable  loca- 
tions. Meanwhile,  they  served  as  vassals  to  the  estab- 
lished tribes.  The  "peregrinations"  relate  the  suc- 
cession of  stops  and  the  length  of  each  stop.  The 
Aztecs  themselves  made  twenty  or  more  stops  lasting 
from  two  to  twenty  years.  Finally  they  took  refuge  on 
two  islands  in  Lake  Tezcoco  and  lived  a  miserable  exist- 
ence among  the  reeds.  They  joined  with  the  Tepane- 
cas  and  by  yeoman  service  gained  their  aid  and  friend- 
ship. 

The  date  for  the  foundation  of  Tenochtitlan  (Mexico 
City)  is  usually  given  as  1325.  About  1350  water 
rights  were  gained  at  the  spring  of  Chapultepec.  This 
was  an  important  gain  because  the  brackish  waters  of  the 


THE  AZTECS 


183 


lake  were  not  fit  to  drink.  A  double  water  main  of  terra 
cotta  was  laid  from  the  springs  to  the  town.  New  land 
was  made,  probably  after  the  manner  still  to  be  seen  in 
the  famous  floating  gardens  of  Xochi- 
milco  by  throwing  the  soil  from  the 
bed  of  the  shallow  lake  into  enclosed 
areas  of  wattle  work.  Gradually  a 
Venice-like  city,  traversed  by  canals 
and  admirably  protected  from  attack, 
rose  from  the  lake.  At  the  coming 
of  the  Spaniards  there  were  three 
causeways  leading  to  the  shores  of 
the  lake  and  each  of  these  was  pro- 
tected by  drawbridges.  There  was  a 
city  wall  upon  which  were  lighthouses 
for  the  guidance  of  homecoming  fish- 
ermen. There  were  palaces  and  mar- 
ket places  and  a  great  central  plaza 
called  the  Tecpan,  where  were  situ- 

the  Grasshopper."     ated  the  principal  temples.        ^^ — 
Aubin  Codex. 

The  Aztecs  count  their  history  as 
a  great  people  from  their  first  war  chief  Acamapichtli 
who  commenced  his  rule  in  1376  (Codex  Aubin).  The 
names  and  the  order  of  the  succeeding  war  chiefs  is 
the  same  in  several  records,  but  the  dates  are  found 
to  vary  slightly. 


Fig.  67.  Picto- 
graphic  Record  of 
the  Conquest  of  the 
Springs  o  f  Cha- 
pultepec,  "Hill  of 
Grasshopper." 


Acamapichtli 

Huitzilihuitl 

Chimalpopoca 

Itzcouatl 

Moctezuma  I 

Axayacatl 

Tizoc 

Ahuitzotl 

Moctezuma  II 

Cuitlahtia 

Cuauhtemoc 


1376-1396 

1396-1417 

1417-1427 

1427-1440 

1440-1469 

1469-1482 

1482-1486 

1486-1502 

1502-1520 

1520 

1520-1521 


184  MEXICO  AND-  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

After  throwing  off  the  yoke  of  their  early  overlords, 
theTepanecas,by  the  subjection  of  Atzcapotzalco  at  the 
beginning  of  the  brilliant  reign  of  Itzcouatl,  the  Aztecs 
of  Tenochtitlan  entered  into  a  three-cornered  league 
with  Tezcoco  and  Tlacopan  (Tacuba).  This  was  an 
offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  an  equal  division 
of  the  spoils  of  war.  Soon  the  united  power  of  these 
three  cities  dominated  the  Valley  of  Mexico  and  began 
to  be  felt  across  the  mountains  on  every  side.  Tenoc- 
titlan  gradually  assumed  the  commanding  position  in 
the  league,  and  although  Tezcoco  continued  to  be  an  im- 
portant center  the  third  member  was  apparently  much 
reduced.  The  great  votive  stone  of  Tizoc  records  some 
of  the  earlier  conquests  of  the  Aztecs.  At  the  arrival  of 
Cortez  only  a  few  important  cities  such  as  Tlascala 
retained  their  independence.  But  the  crest  of  power 
had  then  been  passed  and  it  seems  pretty  certain  that 
the  remarkable  city  in  the  lake  would  in  time  have 
suffered  the  fate  of  other  self-constituted  capitals  both 
in  the  Old  World  and  the  New. 

Social  Organization.  Spanish  historians  often 
liken  Tenochtitlan  to  the  seat  of  an  empire  and  speak  of 
the  ruler  as  one  who  had  the  power  of  an  absolute  mon- 
arch while  other  and  more  recent  writers  have  declared 
that  the  tribal  organization  oLthe  Azteca  was  essenti- 
ally democratic.  The  truth  doubtless  lies  between 
these  extremes.  The  people  were  warlike  by  nature  and 
all  men,  except  a  few  of  the  priesthood,  were  soldiers. 
Honors  depended  largely  upon  success  in  war  and  war- 
riors were  arranged  in  ranks  according  to  their  deeds. 
The  common  warriors  formed  one  rank  and  next  came 
those  who  had  distinguished  themselves  by  definite 
achievements  which  gave  the  right  to  wear  certain  arti- 
cles of  dress  or  to  bear  certain  titles.  The  chiefs  were 


THE  AZTECS  185 

elected  for  an  indefinite  term  of  office  from  the  most 
distinguished  fighters  and  could  be  removed  for  cause. 

But  while  the  offices  of  state  were  elective  there  was, 
nevertheless,  a  tendency  to  choose  from  certain  power- 
ful families  and  at  least  the  foundation  of  an  aristo-J 
cratic  policy.  A  chief  was  succeeded  by  his  son  or 
brother  except  when  these  candidates  were  manifestly 
unfit.  In  the  actual  succession  of  the  great  war  chiefs 
of  Tenochtitlan,  a  peculiar  system  seems  to  have  been 
followed  in  that  the  candidates  from  the  older  genera- 
tion were  ordinarily  exhausted  before  the  next  lower 
generation  became  eligible.  Thus  Huizilihuitl,  Chimal- 
popoca,  and  Jtzcoatl  were  all  sons  of  Acamapichtli,  and 
the  last  and  greatest  was  born  of  a  slave  mother.  Then 
followed  Moctezuma  Ilhuicamina  I  the  son  of  Huitzili- 
huitl.  This  chief  had  no  male  heirs  but  the  children  of 
his  daughter  ruled  in  order:  Axayacatl,  Tizoc,  and 
Ahuitzotl.  Moctezuma  II  was  the  son  of  the  first  of 
these  as  was  Cuitlahua,  while  Cuauhtemoc,  the  last 
Aztec  ruler,  was  the  son  of  Ahuitzotl.  This  peculiar 
succession  was  not  in  vogue  in  Tezcoco,  where  son  suc- 
ceeded father  and  the  lawful  wife  was  chosen  from  the 
royalty  of  Tenochtitlan.  In  the  various  annals,  the 
genealogies  are  often  indicated  and  the  evidence  that 
aristocracies  existed  is  too  strong  to  be  overthrown. 
There  are  even  cases  of  queens  who  succeeded  to  the 
chief  power  after  the  death  of  the  royal  husband. 

It  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  the  Aztecs  ever  had 
what  might  be  called  clans.  We  have  seen  that  there 
were  originally  eight  closely  related  tribes  constituting 
the  Mexicani  or  Mexican  nation.  The  Aztecs  them- 
selves are  said  to  have  been  divided  into  seven  groups 
that  were  first  reduced  to  four  or  five  and  then  increased 
to  about  twenty.  It  is  not  clear  that  these  were 


186  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

exogamic  kinship  groups.  They  were  probably  mili- 
tary societies  taking  into  their  membership  all  the  men 
of  the  tribe.  The  name  Calpolli,  or  "great  house", 
which  was  applied  to  them  seems  to  have  referred  to  a 
sort  of  barracks  or  general  meeting  place  in  each  ward 
or  division  of  the  city  where  arms  and  trophies  were  kept 
and  the  youth  educated  in  the  art  of  war.  The  title  in 
land  was  held  by  the  calpolli  and  the  right  of  use  distrib- 
uted among  the  heads  of  families  who  held  possession 
only  so  long  as  the  land  was  worked.  Each  calpolli 
seems  to  have  had  a  certain  autonomy  in  governmental 
matters  as  well  as  a  local  religious  organization.  It  is 
curious  to  find  in  Salvador,  far  to  the  south,  the  word 
calpolli  applied  to  the  platform  mounds  that  surround 
courts  in  the  ancient  ruins.  This  use  of  the  word  may 
indicate  that  the  "great  houses"  of  the  different  soci- 
eties were  ordinarily  the  principal  buildings  of  the  city 
and  that  they  were  used  for  civil,  military,  and  religious 
purposes. 

In  forming  judgment  on  the  fundamentals  of  social 
organization  among  the  Aztecs  we  must  remember  that 
no  clear  case  of  kinship  clans  has  been  reported  south  of 
the  area  of  the  United  States.  Among  the  Cakchiquels, 
a  Mayan  tribe  of  the  Guatemalan  highlands,  two  royal 
houses  are  reported  from  which  the  ruling  chief  was  al- 
ternately drawn.  The  Zotzils  have  been  explained  as  a 
bat  clan  because  their  name  is  associated  with  the  word 
for  bat  and  because  a  bat  god  appears  to  have  been  their 
patron  deity.  The  Mazatecas  and  Mixtecas,  Deer 
people  and  Cloud  people,  also  have  clanlike  names  but 
in  all  cases  these  are  designations  of  entire  tribes,  not  of 
subdivisions  of  tribes. 

Tenochtitlan  was  divided  into  four  quarters  and  each 
quarter  subdivided  into  a  number  of  wards.  An  under 


//~  "/./•  / 
THE  AZTECS  187 

chief  was  elected  from  each  of  the  subdivisions  which  are 
doubtless  to  be  identified  with  the  calpolli,  and  an  over 
chief  from  each  of  the  four  quarters.  Above  these  stood 
the  war  chief  of  the  entire  tribe  who  was  likewise 
elected,  but  within  the  limits  of  a  fixed  aristocracy.  _A 
second  great  chief,  who  seems  to  have  been  a  peace  officer 
with  some  important  relation  to  the  priesthood,  was 
nominally  equal  to  the  war  chief,  but  practically  much 
less  powerful.  The  real  center  of  the  home  government 
was  a  council  made  up  of  all  the  chiefs.  In  time  of  war 
the  war  chief  was  in  supreme  command  and  could  either 
delegate  his  rights  or  act  in  person.  Just  how  much  the 
priesthood  intervened  in  governmental  affairs  cannot  be 
definitely  put  in  words,  but  their  power  was  doubtless 
great.  Certain  lands  were  cultivated  in  common  for  the 
officers  of  church  and  state  and  much  of  the  tribute 
from  conquered  provinces  was  devoted  to  their  needs. 

The  Tecpan  or  Temple  Enclosure.  The  cere- 
monial center  of  Tenochtitlan  has  been  transformed 
into  the  civic  center  of  Mexico  City.  The  Cathedral,  the 
National  Palace,  and  the  Zocolo,  or  Plaza  Major,  mark 
the  site  where  once  stood  the  famous  Tecpan  or  temple 
enclosure.  Within  the  serpent  walls,  according  to 
Sahagun,  there  were  twenty-five  temple  pyramids,  five 
oratories,  sundry  fasting  houses,  four  bowl-shaped 
stones,  one  disk-shaped  stone,  a  great  stepped  altar,  a 
"star  column,"  seven  skull  racks,  two  ball  courts,  two 
enclosed  areas,  a  well,  three  bathing  places,  two  cellar- 
like  rooms,  a  dancing  place,  nine  priest  houses,  a  prison 
for  the  gods  of  conquered  nations,  arsenals,  work 
places,  etc.  A  native  plan  of  the  Tecpan,  much  sim- 
plified, occurs  in  the  Sahagun  manuscript.  The  great 
pyramid  rose  in  several  terraces  and  was  surmounted 
by  two  temples  each  three  stories  in  height,  one  dedi- 


Plate  XXXVII.  Sahagun's  Plan  of  the  Tecpan  in  Mexico 
City.  After  Seler.  Among  the  details  shown  are:  (a)  The  two 
great  temples;  (6)  the  Quauhxicalli  or  eagle  bowl;  (c)  One  of  the 
Callimecatl,  or  priest  houses;  (e)  An  eagle  house  or  warriors' 
shrine;  (/)  The  Teotlachtli  or  ball  court  of  the  gods;  (g)  Tzom- 
pantli  or  skull  rack;  (h)  The  temple  of  Xipi;  (i)  The  Temalacatl 
or  Gladiator  Stone;  (/c)  The  Colhuacan  Teocalli  or  temple  of 
Colhuacan;  (l-m)  The  gods  5  Lizard  and  5  House  respectively; 
(ri)  Dance  courts;  (o)  Coatenanuitl  or  Serpent  Wall,  so  called 
because  it  was  decorated  with  heads  of  serpents. 


188 


THE  AZTECS  189 

cated  to  Huitzilopochtli  and  the  other  to  Tlaloc. 
Each  temple  contained  an  image  of  the  god  to  which 
it  was  dedicated  and  a  sacrificial  altar.  The  walls  were 
encrusted  with  blood  of  human  victims  whose  hearts 
still  beating  had  been  torn  out  for  divine  food  and  whose 
bodies  had  been  rolled  down  the  steep  flight  of  temple 
stairs.  The  foundations  for  the  great  pyramids  were 
laid  in  1447  by  Moctezuma  I,  the  pyramids  were  com- 
pleted in  1485  while  Tizoc  was  war  chief  and  the  final 
dedication  ceremonies  were  held  in  1487. 

Several  very  interesting  large  sculptures  and  many 
minor  objects  have  been  unearthed  on  the  site  of 
Tecpan.  In  1790  and  1791  were  found  three  famous 
monoliths,  the  Calendar  Stone,  the  Stone  of  Tizoc 
(Sacrificial  Stone),  and  the  Statue  of  Coatlicue. 
Since  1897  many  fine  pieces  of  pottery  and  several 
sculptures  have  been  excavated  near  the  Cathedral 
and  placed  in  the  Museo  Nacional. 

The  Calendar  Stone.  The  great  sculptured  monu- 
ment known  as  the  Calendar  Stone  or  Stone  of  the  Sun, 
is  the  most  valuable  object  that  has  come  down  intact 
from  the  time  of  the  Aztecs.  It  is  a  single  piece  of 
porphyry,  irregular  except  for  the  sculptured  face.  It 
now  weighs  over  twenty  tons  and  it  is  estimated  that 
the  original  weight  was  over  twice  as  much.  The 
sculptured  disk  is  about  twelve  feet  in  diameter.  This 
great  stone  was  transported  by  men  over  many  miles 
of  marshy  lake  bottom  before  it  could  be  placed  in 
position  in  front  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  in  the  temple 
enclosure  that  has  just  been  described.  It  is  believed 
to  have  been  set  up  horizontally  and  to  have  served  as 
a  sort  of  altar  upon  which  human  victims  were  sacri- 
ficed. The  stone  was  doubtless  thrown  down  from  its 


Plate  XXXVIII.  The  Calendar  Stone  of  the  Aztecs.  This 
great  stone  represents  the  disk  of  the  sun  and  the  history  of  the 
world.  It  may  be  analyzed  as  follows,  reading  outward  from  the 
center. 

A  Central  or  cosmogftnic  portion:  The  day  sign  4  Olin  with 
details  in  the  arms  representing  four  epochs  of  the  world;  with  the 
face  of  the  sun  god  in  the  center  and  minor  hieroglyphs  that  may 
represent  the  four  directions  just  outside  the  Olin  symbol. 

B  Band  of  day  signs  beginning  at  the  top  and  reading  towards  the 
left. 

C  Bands  of  conventional  rays  of  the  sun  and  other  details  such  as 
the  embellishment  of  the  sun  with  turquoise  and  eagle  feathers. 

D  The  outer  circle  of  two  great  reptiles  that  may  indicate  the 
universe. 

E  invisible  edge  of  the  disk  bears  representations  of  Itzpapalotl, 
the  obsidian  butterfly  which  is  symbolical  of  the  heavens. 


190 


THE  AZTECS  191 

original  position  by  the  soldiers  of  Cortez  and  may 
have  been  lost  to  sight.  We  know,  however,  that  it 
was  exposed  to  view  about  1560  and  was  then  buried 
by  order  of  the  archbishop  of  Mexico  City  lest  its 
presence  should  cause  the  Indians  to  revert  to  their 
original  pagan  beliefs.  It  was  rediscovered  in  1790 
and  was  afterwards  built  into  the  fagade  of  the 
Cathedral  where  it  remained  until  1885,  when  it  was 
removed  to  the  nearby  museum. 

The  Calendar  Stone  is  not  only  a  symbol  of  the  sun's 
face  marked  with  the  divisions  of  the  year  but  it  is  a 
record  of  the  cosmogonic  myth  of  the  Aztecs  and  the 
creations  and  destructions  of  the  world.  In  the  center 
is  the  face  of  the  sun  god,  Tonatiuh,  enclosed  in  the 
middle  of  the  symbol  called  Olin.  Tonatiuh  is  often 
represented  by  a  much  simpler  sign  of  a  circle  with 
four  or  more  subdivisions  resembling  those  of  a  compass 
which  are  intended  to  represent  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
Olin  is  one  of  the  day  signs  and  means  movement,  or 
perhaps  earthquake.  It  has  also  been  explained  as  a 
graphic  representation  of  the  apparent  course  of  the 
sun  during  the  year.  The  history  of  the  world,  accord- 
ing to  the  Aztecan  myth,  is  divided  into  five  suns  or 
ages,  four  of  which  refer  to  the  past  and  one  to  the 
present.  The  present  sun  is  called  Olin  Tonatiuh 
because  it  is  destined  to  be  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 
The  day  signs  of  the  four  previous  suns  are  represented 
in  the  rectangular  projections  of  the  central  Olin  symbol 
beginning  at  the  upper  right  hand  corner  and  proceeding 
to  the  left.  They  are  4  Ocelotl  (jaguar);  4  Ehecatl 
(wind);  4  Quauhtli  (rain);  4  Atl  (water),  and  they 
refer  to  destruction,  first,  by  jaguars,  second,  by  a  hurri- 
cane, third,  by  a  volcanic  rain  of  fire,  fourth,  by  a 
flood.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  the  year  13  Acatl 
(reed)  recorded  at  the  top  of  the  monument  between 


192.  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

the  reptile  tails  refers  to  the  first  year  of  the  present  sun, 
but  according  to  others  this  is  the  year  1479  in  which 
the  sculpture  was  set  up.  Unfortunately,  we  have  no 
record  of  this  event.  The  fifth  sun  will  end  with  the 
day  4  Olin,  that  is  expressed  in  the  central  symbol 
already  described.  For  this  reason  a  fast  was  held 
on  each  recurrence  of  this  day.  Outside  of  the  Olin 
symbol  but  between  its  arms  are  four  hieroglyphs  of 
uncertain  meaning.  Next  to  this  area  dealing  with 
the  great  ages  of  the  world  comes  a  band  of  the  twenty 
day  signs  of  the  Aztecan  month.  Outside  of  this  band 
are  several  others  which  probably  represent  in  a  con- 
ventionalized manner  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  the 
turquoise  and  eagle  feathers  with  which  the  sun  disk 
was  believed  to  be  decorated.  Finally,  outside  of  all, 
are  two  plumed  monsters  meeting  face  to  face  at  the 
bottom  of  the  disk.  In  each  reptile  face  is  seen  a 
human  face  in  profile.  These  reptiles  are  probably  to 
be  identified  as  the  Xuihcoatl  or  Fire  Serpents. 

$tone  of  Tizoc.  The  Sacrificial  Stone  or  Stone  of 
Tizoc  is  believed  to  have  been  carved  by  order  of  Tizoc, 
the  war  chief  who  ruled  from  1482-1486,  as  a  memorial 
offering  to  Mexican  arms  on  the  completion  of  the  great 
temple  to  the  Mexican  God  of  War.  The  stone  was  a 
quauhxicalli,  or  "eagle  bowl."  This  name  was  given 
to  large  bowls  which  were  used  to  hold  the  blood  and 
the  heart  of  human  victims  sacrificed  to  the  gods.  The 
same  name  was  extended  to  the  large  .  drum-shaped 
stone,  under  consideration,  which  has  a  pit  in  the  center 
and  a  sort  of  canal  running  from  the  center  to  one  side 
which  may  have  been  intended  to  drain  off  the  blood. 
Human  sacrifice  actually  took  place  on  this  stone  but 
it  is  pretty  certain  that  it  was  not  one  of  the  temalacatl 
or  "gladiator  stones"  on  which  were  staged  mortal 


03  03 


o 


O  o3  .3 
^§g 
^^& 

3  e 


X^  3  « 

X.SU* 
SSS-l 

o3-O  oj  2 

S3^i 
^HH 


193 


194 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


combats  between  captives.  According  to  description  the 
gladiator  stones  were  pierced  by  a  hole  in  the  center  so 
that  one  or  more  captives  could  be  bound  fast  by  a  rope. 

On  the  top  of  the 
Stone  of  Tizoc  is  a 
representation  of  the 
Tonatiuh,  or  sun's  disk, 
much  less  complex  than 
that  which  we  have 
seen  on  the  Calendar 
Stone  but  with  many 
similar  parts.  On  the 
sides  of  the  stone  are 
fifteen  groups  of  fig- 
ures, each  group  rep- 
resenting a  conqueror 
and  his  captive.  The 
victorious  soldier  ap- 
pears each  time  in  the 
guise  of  the  war  god, 
Huitzilopochtli,  or  his 
wizard  brother  Tezcatlipoca.  The  left  foot  of  the 
figure  ends  in  two  scroll-like  objects  that  may  represent 
the  humming  bird  feathers  that  formed  the  left  foot  of 
Huitzilopochtli.  But  Tezcatlipoca  also  had  a  de- 
formed foot.  Moreover,  on  the  side  of  the  head- 
dress is  a  disk  with  a  flame-shaped  object  coming 
out  of  it.  This  may  represent  the  smoking  mirror 
of  Tezcatlipoca.  The  captive  wears  costumes  that 
change  slightly  from  one  figure  to  the  next.  Over  the 
head  of  the  captive  in  each  instance  is  the  hieroglyph 
of  a  captured  town  or  district. 

Nearly  all  the  place  name  hieroglyphs  have  been 
deciphered.  The  list  is  interesting  historically  because 
it  gives  the  principal  conquests  up  to  the  reign  of  Tizoc. 


Fig.  68.  Details  from  the 
Stone  of  Tizoc:  a,  Huitzilo- 
pochtli, Aztec  War  God;  6, 
figures  representing  a  captured 
town;  c,  name  of  the  captured 
town  (Tuxpan,  place  of  the  rab- 
bits). 


Plate  XL.  This  Monstrous  Sculpture  represents  Coatlicue,  the 
Serpent-Skirted  Goddess,  who  was  regarded  as  the  Mother  of  the 
•Gods. 


195 


196 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


Starting  at  the  side  directly  across  the  stone  from  the 
groove  or  drain  we  see  that  the  figure  of  the  victor  has 
behind  his  head  a  hieroglyph  that  represents  a  leg. 
This  is  the  hieroglyph  of  Tizoc  and  the  victim  in  this 
case  represents  the  district  of  Matlatzinco  in  the  Val- 
ley of  Toluca.  This  district  was  brought  under  sub- 
jection by  Tizoc  himself.  Among  the  other  conquered 
cities  are  such  well-known  ones  as  Chalco,  Xochimilco, 
and  Colhuacan  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Tezcoco  and 
Ahuilizapan  (Orizaba)  and  Tuxpan  that  are  more  dis- 
tant. 


Fig.  69.     Detail  showing  the  Construction  of  the  Face  of  Cbat- 
licue  from  Two  Serpent  Heads  meeting  End  to  End. 


Coatlicue.  The  famous  statue  of  the  Earth  God- 
dess, Coatlicue,  "the  goddess  with  the  serpent  skirt" 
is  one  of  the  most  striking  examples  of  barbaric  imagi- 
nation. The  name  Teoyamiqui  is  often  given  to  this 
uncouth  figure,  but  the  identification  is  faulty.  Like 
the  other  great  sculptures  we  have  just  examined,  it 
doubtless  occupied  an  important  place  in  the  great 
ceremonial  center  of  Tenochtitlan,  but  no  ancient 
reference  to  it  is  extant.  This  goddess  is  reported  to 
have  been  the  mother  of  the  gods. 

The  statue  may  be  described  as  follows:  The  feet 
are  furnished  with  claws.  The  skirt  is  a  writhing  mass 


THE  AZTECS  197 

of  braided  rattlesnakes.  The  arms  are  doubled  up  and 
the  hands  are  snake  heads  on  a  level  with  the  shoulders. 
Around  the  neck  and  hanging  down  over  the  breast 
is  a  necklace  of  alternating  hands  and  hearts  with  a 
death's  head  pendant.  The  head  of  this  monstrous 
woman  is  the  same  on  front  and  back  and  is  formed  of 
two  serpent  heads  that  meet  face  to  face.  The  forked 
tongue  and  the  four  downward  pointing  fangs  belong 
half  and  half  to  each  of  the  two  profile  faces. 

Mexican  Writing.  The  means  of  record  employed 
in  Mexican  codices  are  in  part  pictographic  and  in 
part  hieroglyphic.  The  sequence  of  the  historical 

C 


Fig.  70.  Hieroglyphs  of  Precious  Materials:  left  to  right,  gold; 
turquoise;  mosaic  of  precious  stones;  chalchihuitl,  or  jade;  mirror  of 
obsidian. 

events  in  these  native  manuscripts  is  often  indicated 
by  a  line  of  footprints  leading  from  one  place  or  scene 
of  action  to  another.  Historical  records  of  this  type 
resemble  old-fashioned  maps  and  some  are  in  fact 
known  by  this  name.  The  places  of  towns  in  these 
documents  are  represented  by  true  hieroglyphs  and 
often  the  character  of  the  country  is  indicated  by  pic- 
tures of  typical  vegetation,  such  as  maguey  plants  for 
the  highlands  and  palms  for  the  lowlands.  The  day 
or  the  year  in  which  took  place  the  foundation  of  the 
town  or  whatever  event  is  intended  to  be  recorded  is 
usually  placed  in  conjunction  with  the  hieroglyph  or 
picture.  Conquest  is  often  indicated  by  a  place  name 
hieroglyph  with  a  spear  thrust  into  it. 


198 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


A  few  examples  of  Nahuan  hieroglyphs  will  now  be 
given  to  illustrate  this  interesting  method  of  writing. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  there  is  nothing  in  the 
nature  of  a  connected  narrative.  The  hieroglyphs  or 
word  pictures  are  limited  to  geographical  and  personal 


from  tlantli,  teeth 


cat  from  calli,  house 


mizfrom  miztli,  cloud 


Caltepec 


Itztepec 


Atepec 


Pan tepee 


Miztlan 


Itztlan  Petlatlan 

Fig.  71.    Aztecan  Place  Names. 


Tecalco 


names,  including  the  names  of  gods,  to  months,  days, 
numbers,  units  of  measure,  and  objects  of  commerce. 
Some  of  the  signs  are  in  no  degree  realistic  and  have  a 
definite  meaning  by  common  consent  alone,  such  as  the 
symbol  for  gold  (Fig.  70).  Others  are  abbreviated  and 
conventionalized  pictures  of  objects.  Thus  the  head  of 
a  god  or  of  an  animal  frequently  appears  as  the  sign  of 
the  whole.  But  the  most  important  and  interesting 


THE  AZTECS 


199 


word  signs  are  rebuses  in  which  separate  syllables  or 
groups  of  syllables  are  represented  by  more  or  less 
conventionalized  pictures.  The  whole  word  picture 
is  made  up  of  a  combination  of  syllable  pictures  which 


Fig.  72.     Aztecan  Day  Signs. 


Cipactli 
Crocodile 

Ehecatl 
Wind 

Calli 
House 

Cuezpallin 
Lizard 

Coatl 
Snake 

Miquiztli 
Death 

Mazatl 
Deer 

Tochtli 
Rabbit 

All 
Water 

Itzcuintli 
Dog 

Ozomatli 
Monkey 

Malinalli 
Herb 

Acatl 
Reed 

Ocelotl 
Jaguar 

Quauhtli 
Eagle 

Cozcaquauhtli 
Vulture 

Olin 
Movement 

Tecvatl 
Stone 

Quiahiutl 
Rain 

Xochitl 
Flower 

indicate  phonetically  the  word  as  a  whole.  Very  often 
advantage  is  taken  of  puns  on  whole  or  partial  words, 
while  color  and  position  are  also  employed  to  indicate 
sounds  and  syllables. 

In  Fig.   71   are  given  a  few  of   the  more  common 
syllable  pictures.     The  name  of  the  object  represented 


200 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


is  cut  down  by  the  elimination  of  tl,  te,  etc.,  that  form 
the  nominal  endings.  Thus,  the  picture  of  water,  all, 
becomes  the  sign  for  the  sound  a,  that  of  stone  tetl  is 


a 


w 

d 


f 


73.  Variant  Forms  of  Aztecan  Day  Signs:  a,  acatl,  arrow;  6, 
mazatl,  deer  foot;  c,  malinalli,  jaw  bone;  d,  itzcuintli,  dog's  ear;  e, 
ozomatli,  monkey's  ear;  /,  ocelotl,  jaguar's  ear. 


Fig.  74.  Aztecan  Numbers  and  Objects  of  Commerce:  a,  1; 
6,  20;  c,  400;  d,  8,000;  e,  ten  faces  carved  from  precious  stone;. 
/,  twenty  bags  of  cochineal  dye;  g,  one  hundred  bales  of  cocoa; 
h,  four  hundred  bales  of  cotton;  ?:,  four  hundred  jars  of  honey  of 
'  tuna;  ;',  eight  thousand  leaf  bundles  of  copal  gum;  k,  twenty 
baskets  each  containing  sixteen  hundred  ground  cacao  nibs;  (I) 
four  hundred  and  two  blankets. 

cut  down  to  the  syllable  te.     Several  of  these  syllable 
pictures  are  combined  to  represent  a  whole  word. 


THE  AZTECS 


201 


The  hieroglyphs  of  the  twenty  days  of  the  month  are 
frequently  represented,  but  those  of  the  eighteen  months 
are  not  nearly  so  well  known.  As  for  the  gods,  the  faces 
are  usually  pictured,  especially  when  these  are  gro- 
tesque, but  sometimes 
detail  of  dress  or  an  ob- 
ject connected  with  a 
special  ceremony  is  suffi- 
cient to  recall  the  divin- 
ity. The  Mexican  system 
of  numbers  was  based  on 
twenties.  The  units  were 
figured  by  dots,  the  twen- 
ties by  flags,  the  four 
hundreds  by  a  device  like 
a  tree  that  represented 
hair,  and  the  eight  thou- 
sands by  the  ceremonial 
pouches  in  which  copal 
incense  was  carried. 
k  'Aztecan  Religion. 
The  religion  of  the  Aztecs,] 
like  that  of  the  Mayas, 
was  a  polytheism  in  which 
special  divinities  control- 
led the  powers  of  nature 
and  the  activities  of  men. 


Fig.  75.  Analysis  of  Mexican 
Record.  1,  the  year  Two  Reed, 
1507;  2,  eclipse  of  the  sun;  3, 
earthquake  at  place  pictured  at 
4;  5,  the  town  of  Huixachtitlan. 
In  the  temple  (6)  was  held  (7) 
the  new-fire  ceremony  at  the 


beginning  of  a  52-year  period. 
In  this  year  were  also  drowned 


in  the  River  Tuzac  (8)  two 
thousand  warriors  (10)  which 
the  vultures  devoured  (9). 


The  gods  were  perhaps 
further  advanced  to  wards 
human  form  and  attri- 
butes than  were  those  of  the  earlier  culture  to  the  south, 
but  definite  characterization  was  still  accomplished  by 
grotesque  features  and  certain  animal  connections  were 
still  evident.  The  situation  is  confused  beyond  the  point 
of  analysis.  The  mythologies  often  ascribe  different 


ii 


ffi* 


Plate  XLI.  Page  from  the  Tonalamatl  Section  of  the  Codex 
Borbonicus.  The  thirteen  days  run  along  the  bottom  of  the  page 
and  up  the  left  side  of  the  large  division.  The  period  covered  is 
one-twentieth  of  the  Tonalamatl  of  260  days.  At  the  left  of  each 
day  is  seen  one  of  the  nine  Lords  of  the  Night,  so-called,  in  orderly 
succession.  In  the  divisions  above  or  to  the  left  of  the  days  are 
the  thirteen  gods  of  the  Hours  of  the  Day  in  connection  with  the 
Thirteen  Birds.  The  patron  goddess  of  this  division  of  the  Tonala- 
matl is  Itzpapalotl,  the  obsidian  butterfly.  •  The  other  pictures 
relate  mostly  to  mythological  instances  and  the  details  of  ceremonies. 
For  instance,  the  broken  tree  represents  Tamoanchan,  a  legendary 
site,  and  the  sacrifice  ot  twenty  birds  is  indicated  by  the  flag  at- 
tached to  the  bleeding  head  of  a  decapitated  bird. 


202 


THE  AZTECS  203 

origins  to  the  same  deity.  One  god  is  addressed  by 
many  names,  descriptive  or  figurative,  that  are  intended 
to  bring  out  the  various  aspects  of  his  power.  Over- 
lapping functions  make  it  impossible  to  assign  each 
god  to  his  special  province.  There  are  universal  gods, 
there  are  special  gods,  and  there  are  patron  gods  of 
trade  guilds.  Moreover,  there  are  foreign  gods,  some 
recent,  some  ancient. 

_  of .. central  Mexico  had  its  objective, 


ritualistic  side,  which  appealed  directly  to  the  under- 
standing of  the  masses,  and  its  more  subtle  theological 
or  philosophical  side  seen,  for  instance,  in  the  poems 
written  by  priests  and  rulers.  It  was  a  mixture  of 
spiritualism  and  the  grossest  idolatry.  The  ceremonial 
calendar,  with  a  description  of  the  feasts  and  sacrifices 
that  occurred  at  different  times  of  the  year,  has  been 
preserved  in  a  number  of  documents.  Pageants,  in- 
cense-burning, and  human  sacrifice  gave  a  strong 
dramatic  quality  to  the  religious  rites. 

*  The  conception  of  a  supreme  deity  is  seen  in  Om&- 
teuctli,  the  Lord  of  Duality,  a  vague  god  head  and 
creator  who  is  sometimes  addressed  in  some  of  the 
religious  poems  as  the  "Cause  of  All."  In  the  back- 
ground of  the  popular  religion  was  the  belief  in  the 
Earth  Mother  and  the  Sky  Father  and  in  the  divinity 
of  the  Sun,  the  Moon,  the  Jaguar,  the  Serpent,  and 
whatever  else  was  beautiful,  powerful,  and  inexplicable. 
Tezcatlipoca,  by  reason  of  his  magic  and  his  omnis- 
cience, was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  pantheon  of  active 
gods,  Huitzilopochtli  was,  however,  the  favorite  god  of 
the  Aztecs  through  his  relation  to  war.  Tlaloc,  the 
god  of  rain,  was  naturally  of  great  importance  to 
agriculturists  living  in  a  rather  arid  region.  Tonatiuh, 
the  Sun  God,  was  a  more  or  less  abstract  deity  who 


[a] 


[b] 

Plate  XLII.  (a)  Pictures  of  Tlaloc,  the  God  oi  Rain,  and  of 
Ehecatl,  the  God  of  Winds,  in  the  Codex  Magliabecchiano;  (6) 
Mexican  Genealogical  Table  on  Maguey  Paper.  The  names  of 
most  of  the  individuals  are  given  by  hieroglyphs  attached  to  the  head 
or  the  seat. 


204 


THE  AZTECS 


205 


acted  in  part  through  other  gods.     But  the  list  is  too 
long  to  be  repeated  here. 

The  special  gods  of  the  four  principal  Mexican  cities 
were  as  follows: — 


I/ 


Tenochtitlan 
Tezcoco 
Tlascala 
Cholula 


Huitzilopochtli 
Tezcatlipoca 
Camaztli 
Quetzalcoatl 


Of   gods   with   a  foreign   origin  perhaps   the   most 
important  were  Quetzalcoatl  and  Xipe.     The  former 

was  introduced  long  before    / 
the    Aztecs    raised    their  / 
banner  of  war   and  may/ 
have  been  an   adaptation 
of  the  Long-nosed  God  of 
the  Mayas.     The  worship 
of  Xipe  is    said  to    have 
originated  in  a  Zapotecan 
town  but  it  had  certainly 
taken    a    strong    hold   on 
the  Aztecs  of  Mexico  City 
and  was  likewise  known  to 
Nahuan  tribes  as  far  south 
as  Salvador. 

Conceptions  of  the^ 
Universe.  Cosmogonic 
myths,  the  world  over,  are 
unscientific  attempts  to 
explain  the  creation  of  the  universe,  to  outline  the 
powers  of  the  gods  and  to  trace  the  development  of 
nature.  The  cosmogonic  myths  of  Mexico  and  Central 
America  are  characterized  by  multiple  creations.  The 
Aztecan  belief  in  five  suns  each  standing  for  a  world 
epoch  is  paralleled  in  fragments  of  Mayan  mythology. 
is^naLeniphasizejd  so  much  as  destruction..  The 


Fig.  76.     Chalchuihtlicue, 
Aztecan  Goddess  of  Water. 


206  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


sequence  of  the  suns  is  figured  on  the  Calendar  Stone, 
and  in  one  of  the  codices,  besides  being  explained  in 
some  of  the  early  writings  of  Spanish  priests  and  edu- 
cated natives.  The  first  sun  was  devoured  by  a  jaguar 
and  in  the  resulting  darkness  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth  were  devoured  by  jaguars.  The  second  sun 
was  destroyed  by  a  hurricane,  the  third  by  a  rain  of  fire, 
and  the  fourth  by  a  flood.  One  human  pair  escaped 
each  cataclysm  and  lived  to  repopulate  the  world. 
The  fifth  or  present  sun  will  be  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake. 

ions  of  the  shape  and  character  of  the  universe 
are  pretty  well  defined  in  Aztecan  lore.  The  wide- 
spread belief  that  the  universe  consists  of  three  super- 
imposed worlds,  the  upper  or  sky  world,  the  middle 
world  of  living  men  and  the  under  world  of  the  dead,  is 
found  in  a  developed  form.  The  upper  world  is  divided 
into  thirteen  levels.  The  uppermost  four  levels  are 
called  Teteocan,  the  abode  of  the  gods,  and  are  con- 
sidered to  be  invisible.  The  creator  of  all,  Ometeuctli, 
Lord  of  Duality,  dwells  with  his  spouse  in  the  highest 
heaven  and  under  him  in  order  are  the  Place  of  the 
Red  God  of  Fire,  the  Place  of  the  Yellow  Sun  God  and 
the  Place  of  the  White  Evening  Star  God.  The  inferior 
heavens,  called  Ihuicatl,  are  given  over  to  the  visible 
celestial  activities.  There  is  one  heaven  for  the  storms, 
another  for  the  blue  sky  of  the  day,  the  dark  sky  of  the 
night,  the  comets,  the  evening  star,  the  sun,  the  stars, 
etc. 

The  under  world  is  Mictlan,  the  Place  of  the  Dead. 
More  divisions  are  commonly  given  and  in  the  lower- 
most of  these  lives  Mictlanteuctli,  the  Lord  of  Death, 
and  his  mate.  The  idea  of  future  blessing  or  punish- 
ment is  not  entirely  absent  from  the  minds  of  the 


THE  AZTECS  207 

Aztecs.  Warriors  killed  in  battle  go  to  the  House  of  the 
Sun,  in  one  of  the  upper  worlds,  as  do  women  who  die 
in  childbirth.  Tlalocan,  the  lowermost  heaven,  is  a 
sort  of  terrestrial  paradise  for  others.  Mictlan  is, 
however,  the  common  abode  of  the  dead,  and  the 
wretched  soul  can  reach  it  only  after  a  journey  set  with 
horrors. 

The  cult  of  the  quarters  is  intimately  associated  with 
the  concept  of  the  universe.     With  the  four  cardinal 
points  a  number  of  others  are  sometimes  taken  includ- 
ing the  zenith,  the  nadir,  and  the  middle.     The  sacred 
numbers  4,  5,  6,  and  7  may  thus  conceivably  be  derived  x 
from  the  points  of  space,  but  it  would  be  very  unsafe  \ 
to  assume  that  they  are  necessarily  so  derived,     ^hp    I 
general  concept  of  a  universe  divided  into  quarters,    / 
fifths,  or  sixths  is  a  powerful  conventionalizing  factor 
in  mythology,  religion,  and  artT[  Prayers,  songs,  and 
important  acts  are  repeated  in  identical  or  in  system- 
atically  varied   form   for   each    point    of    space,    fin 
Mayan    and   Aztecan   codices   the   symbolism  of  the 
four  directions  is  often  manifest./ 

^  Ceremonies.  Ceremonialism  was  intensely  devel- 
oped in  Mexico  and  the  dramatic  quality  of  many 
Aztecan  rites  of  human  sacrifice  has  probably  never 
been  equaled.  We  are  apt  to  think  only  of  the  grue- 
some features  oLJjuman  sacrifice  and  to  overlook  the 
spiritual  ones.  A^he  victim  was  often  regarded  as  a 
personification  oF"a  god  and  as  such  he  was  feted, 
clothed  in  fine  garments,  and  given  every  honor. 
Efforts  were  made  to  cause  the  victim  to  go  willingly  to 
his  death  uplifted  by  a  truly  religious  ecstasy.  It  was 
considered  unlucky  that  he  should  grieve  or  falteip 
^ihe  religious  calendar  was  given  over  to  fixed  and 
movable  feasts.  The  fixed  feasts  were  eighteen  in 


208  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

number  and  each  came  on  the  last  day  of  a  twenty- day 
period  and  gave  its  name  to  that  period.  These  eight- 
een periods  correspond  roughly  with  the  Mayan  uinals 
or  months,  but  since  dates  were  rarely  given  in  relation 
to  them,  they  do  not  have  the  same  calendrical  im- 
portance. The  five  days  that  rounded  out  the  365-day 
year  were  considered  unlucky. 

^  Each  of  the  eighteen  feasts  of  the  year  was  under  the 
patronage  of  a  special  divinity  and  each  had  a  set  of 
ceremonies  all  its  own.  In  some  cases  the  ceremonies 
were  really  culminations  of  long  periods  of  preparation. 
Thus,  on  the  last  day  of  the  month,  Toxcatl,  there  was 
sacrificed  a  young  man,  chosen  from  captured  chief- 
tains for  his  beauty  and  accomplishments,  who  for  an 
entire  year  had  been  fitting  himself  for  his  one  turn 
on  the  stage  of  blood  and  death.  This  intended  vic- 
im,  gayly  attired  and  accompanied  by  a  retinue  of 
pages,  was  granted  the  freedom  of  the  city.  When  the 
month  of  Toxcatl  entered  he  was  given  brides,  whose 
names  were  those  of  goddesses,  and  in  his  honor  were 
held  a  succession  of  brilliant  festivals.  On  the  last  day 
there  was  a  parade  of  canoes  across  Lake  Tezcoco  and 
when  a  certain  piece  of  desert  land  was  reached,  the 
brides  and  courtiers  bade  farewell  to  the  victim.  His 
pages  accompanied  him  by  a  little-used  trail  to  the  base 
of  an  apparently  ruined  temple.  Here  he  was  stripped 
of  his  splendid  garments  and  of  the  jewels  that  were 
symbols  of  divinity.  With  only  a  necklace  of  flutes 
he  mounted  the  steps  of  the  pyramid.  At  each  step  he 
broke  one  of  the  flutes  and  he  arrived  at  the  summit, 
where  the  priests  waited,  knife  in  hand,  a  naked  man 
whose  heart  was  to  be  offered  to  the  very  god  he  had 
impersonated.  This  ceremony  is  given  only  as  an  ex- 
ample, but  it  illustrates  two  characteristics  that  are 


I 

' 

THE  AZTECS  209 

seen  in  several  other  sacrifices,  namely,  the  paying  of 
homage  and  honor  to  the  intended  sacrificial  victim, 
and,  secondly,  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  victim  in 
a  happy  frame  of  mind. 

The  eleventh  feast  of  the  year  was  called  Ochpaniztli, 
"the  feast  of  the  broom"  and  was  celebrated  in  honor 
of  the  goddess  known  as  Toci,  or  Teteoinnan.  The 
first  of  these  names  means  "our  female  ancestor"  and 
the  second  one  means  "the  mother  of  the  gods."  She 
was  a  goddess  of  the  earth  and  her  symbol  was  the  grass 
broom  with  which-  the  earth  was  swept.  She  also 
exerted  an  influence  over  the  arts  of  the  hearth,  such  as 
weaving.  Her  pictures  in  the  codices  show  her  with  a 
broom  in  one  hand  and  a  shield  in  the  other  while  about 
her  head  is  a  band  of  unspun  cotton  into  which  are 
stuck  spindles  wrapped  with  thread. 

During  this  month  the  roads  were  repaired,  the  houses 
and  plazas  swept,  and  the  temples  and  idols  refurbished. 
According  to  the  text  in  the  Codex  Magliabecchiano 
there  were  human  sacrifices  in  the  temples  which 
fronted  on  the  roads  and  there  were  great  dances  and 
carousals.  Those  sacrificed  were  afterwards  flayed 
as  in  the  feast  of  Xipe  and  their  skins  worn  by  dancers. 
The  picture  that  accompanies  this  revolting  admission 
is  itself  devoid  of  any  morbid  symbols.  It  shows  a 
kneeling  woman  holding  out  the  broom  and  shield. 
She  wears  a  white  dress  and  a  necklace  of  jade  beads 
with  golden  bells  for  pendants.  Below  her  are  two 
standing  men  who  bear  in  their  hands  offerings  of  ripe 
fruit. 

Sahagun  gives  details  of  a  terrible  drama  that  was 
enacted  during  this  twenty-day  month.  For  the  first 
eight  days  there  was  dancing  without  song  and  without 
the  drum.  After  this  prologue  a  woman  was  chosen  to 


210  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

impersonate  the  patron  goddess  and  to  wear  her  charac- 
teristic dress  and  ornaments.  With  her  was  a  retinue  of 
women  skilled  in  medicine  and  midwifery.  For  four 
days  these  persons  divided  in  opposing  ranks  and 
pelted  each  other  with  leaves  and  flowers.  While  this 
harmless  ceremony  and  others  like  it  were  being  acted 
out,  the  greatest  care  was  taken  that  the  woman  who 
played  the  role  of  the  goddess  and  who  was  marked  for 
death  should  not  suspect  her  fate.  It  was  considered 
unlucky,  indeed,  if  this  victim  wept  or  was  sad.  When 
her  time  to  die  had  come  she  was  clothed  in  rich  gar- 
ments and  given  to  understand  that  she  should  be  that 
night  the  bride  of  a  rich  lord.  And  under  such  a  be- 
guiling belief  she  was  led  silently  to  the  temple  of 
sacrifice.  There  without  warning  an  attendant  lifted 
her  upon  himself,  back  to  back,  and  her  head  was 
instantly  struck  off.  Without  delay  the  skin  was 
stripped  from  her  warm  body  and  a  youth,  wearing  it 
as  a  garment,  was  conducted  in  the  midst  of  captives 
to  the  temple  of  the  War  God,  Huitzilopochtli.  Here 
in  the  presence  of  this  mighty  god  the  youth  himself 
tore  out  the  hearts  of  four  victims  and  then  abandoned 
the  rest  to  the  knife  of  the  head  priest.  Thus  closed 
the  terrible  drama  which  began  with  an  innocent  battle 
of  flowers  and  ended  in  an  orgy  of  blood. 

The  twelfth  month  passed  under  two  names.  It  was 
called  Pachtli  after  a  plant  with  which  the  temples  were 
decorated  and  Teotleco  which  signifies  "the  arrival  of 
the  gods."  The  principal  feast  was  held,  as  usual,  on 
the  twentieth  day  when  the  great  company  of  gods  was 
supposed  to  return  from  a  far  land.  One  god,  very 
youthful  and  robust,  arrived  on  the  eighteenth  day, 
being  able  to  outwalk  the  others,  while  a  few  very  old 
and  infirm  divinities  were  late  in  getting  to  the  feast. 


THE  AZTECS 

The  one  who  arrived  first  was  called  Telpochtli  or 
Titlacauan  but  in  reality  he  was  the  great  Tezcatlipoca 
in  disguise. 

In  anticipation  of  this  return,  the  temples,  shrines, 
and  household  idols  were  decorated  with  branches. 
The  youths  who  did  this  work  were  repaid  in  corn,  the 
amount  varying  from  a  full  basket  to  a  few  ears.  A 
novel  manner  of  attesting  the  earliest  presence  of  divin- 
ity is  related.  Some  cornmeal  was  spread  in  a  circular 
mass  upon  the  ground.  During  the  night  the  high 
priests  kept  vigil  and  visited  from  time  to  time  this 
circle  of  cornmeal.  When  he  saw  a  footprint  in  the 
center  he  cried  out,  "Our  master  has  come."  Then 
there  was  a  burst  of  music  and  everyone  ran  to  the  great 
feast  in  the  temple.  Much  native  wine  was  drunk,  for 
this  was  considered  equivalent  to  washing  the  tired  feet 
of  the  travel- worn  gods.  As  a  final  act  of  the  celebra- 
tion there  was  a  dance  in  costume  around  a  great  fire 
and  several  unfortunates  were  tossed  alive  into  the 
flames. 

Space  will  not  permit  a  further  examination  of  the 
eighteen  fixed  feasts.  The  movable  feasts  were  mostly 
in  definite  relation  to  the  tonalamatl  and  were  thus 
subject  to  repetition  every  260  days.  The  tonalamatl 
as  represented  in  Mexican  codices  is  in  much  more  detail 
than  in  Mayan  codices  since  every  day  is  covered. 
The  entire  cycle  is  divided  into  twenty  groups  of  thir- 
teen days  each  and  each  group  is  presided  over  by  a 
special  divinity.  There  are  other  repeating  series  of 

fods,  sacred  birds,  etc.,  that  preside  over  the  individual 
ays  in  these  groups.     It  seems  likely  that  many  of  the^j 
ceremonies    connected    with    the    tonalamatl    were    of  I 
special  rather  than  general  significance  like  the  celebra-  4 
iion  of  Catholic  saints  days. 


212  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

Other  feasts  were  held  in  relation  to  longer  time 
periods.  There  were  important  festivals  held  in  con- 
nection with  the  planet  Venus  with  especially  elaborate 
ones  falling  at  intervals  of  eight  years.  Still  another 
ceremony  was  held  at  the  completion  of  a  fifty-two 
year  period,  when  the  set  of  years  were  figuratively 
bundled  up  and  laid  away  and  a  new  sacred  fire  lighted. 

Poetry  and  Music.  The  languages  of  Central 
America  were  capable  of  considerable  literary  develop- 
ment. This  is  seen  especially  in  the  songs  that  were 
used  in  different  religious  ceremonies  of  the  Aztecs,  as 
well  as  in  the  reflective  poems  written  by  educated 
natives.  Several  very  fine  pieces  have  been  preserved, 
and  while  there  is  no  rhyme,  there  is  much  rhythm. 
When  recited  by  a  person  speaking  fluently  the  native 
tongue  these  poems  are  very  impressive.  Of  course, 
translation  is  always  hazardous,  and  fundamental 
differences  in  language,  such  as  exist  between  English 
and  Aztecan,  make  it  almost  impossible.  The  most 
famous  poet  whose  name  has  come  down  to  us  was 
Nezahualcoyotl,  or  Famishing  Coyote,  who  was  a  ruler 
of  Tezcoco  and  died  at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty 
years  in  1472.  A  few  verses  from  one  of  his  poems  on 
the  mutability  of  life  and  the  certainty  of  death  have 
been  translated  as  follows: — 

All  the  earth  is  a  grave,  and  naught  escapes  it;  nothing  is  so  perfect 
that  it  does  not  fall  and  disappear.  The  rivers,  brooks,  fountains  and 
waters  flow  on,  and  never  return  to  their  joyous  beginnings;  they  hasten 
on  to  the  vast  realms  of  Tlaloc,  and  the  wider  they  spread  between  their 
marges  the  more  rapidly  do  they  mould  then*  own  sepulchral  urns.  That 
which  was  yesterday  is  not  today;  and  let  not  that  which  is  today  trust 
to  live  tomorrow. 

The  caverns  of  earth  are  filled  with  pestilential  dust  which  once  was 
the  bones,  the  flesh,  the  bodies  of  great  ones  who  sate  upon  thrones, 
deciding  causes,  ruling  assemblies,  governing  armies,  conquering  prov- 
inces, possessing  treasures,  tearing  down  temples,  flattering  themselves 
with  pride,  majesty,  fortune,  praise  and  dominion.  These  glories  have 
passed  like  the  dark  smoke  thrown  out  by  the  fires  of  Popocatepetl, 
leaving  no  monuments  but  the  rude  skins  on  which  they  are  written. 


THE  AZTECS 


213 


Another  example  will  serve  to  emphasize  the  strain  of 
sadness  and  the  vision  of  death  that  characterize  so 
many  Aztecan  poems. 

Sad  and  strange  it  is  to  see  and  reflect  on  the  prosperity  and  power  of 
the  old  and  dying  king  Tezozomoc;  watered  with  ambition  and  avarice, 
he  grew  like  a  willow  tree  rising  above  the  grass  and  flowers  of  spring, 
rejoicing  for  a  long  time,  until  at  length  withered  and  decayed,  the 
storm  wind  of  death  tore  him  from  his  roots  and  dashed  him  in  fragments 
to  the  ground.  The  same  fate  befell  the  ancient  King  Colzatzli,  so  that 
no  memory  was  left  of  him,  nor  of  his  lineage. 


Fig.  77.     A  Mexican  Orchestra:      1,  log  drum;  2,  kettle  drum; 
3-4,  flageolets;  5,  gourd  rattle;  6,  turtle  shell.      Manuscrit  du  Cacique. 

The  Aztecs  held  concerts  in  the  open  air  where  poems 
were  sung  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  drum  and  other 
simple  instruments.  Songs  were  also  sung  at  banquets 
and  in  the  stress  of  love  and  war.  The  common  musi- 
cal instruments  of  the  Aztecs  vary  but  little  from  those 


214  MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

in  use  elsewhere  in  Mexico  and  Central  America.  There 
were  two  kinds  of  drums.  One  was  a  horizontal  hol- 
lowed-out  log  with  an  H-shaped  cutting  made  longi- 
tudinally on  its  upper  surface  so  as  to  form  two  vibrat- 
ing strips  which  were  struck  with  wooden  drumsticks 
having  tips  of  rubber.  The  second  sort  of  drum  was 
an  upright  log  also  hollowed  out  and  covered  with  a 
drumhead  of  deerskin.  Conches  were  used  for  trum- 
pets. Resonator  whistles  with  or  without  finger  holes 
were  made  of  clay  in  fanciful  shapes.  Flageolets  were 
constructed  of  clay,  bone,  or  wood  and  flutes  were  made 
of  reed.  Resounding  metal  disks  and  tortoise  shells 
were  beaten  in  time.  Many  sorts  of  gourd  and  earth- 
enware rattles  were  employed  as  well  as  notched  bones 
which  were  rasped  with  a  scraping  stick.  Copper  bells 
of  the  sleigh  bell  type  were  exceedingly  common.  The 
marimba,  however,  that  is  such  a  favorite  musical  in- 
strument today  in  Central  America  is  doubtless  of 
African  origin  and  fairly  recent  introduction.  No 
stringed  instruments  were  known  to  the  ancient  Mexi- 
cans nor  does  the  pan-pipe  appear  to  have  been  used  in 
this  area  although  common  in  South  America. 

Minor  Aztecan  Arts.  Some  of  the  great  sculptures 
of  Tenochtitlan  have  already  been  described  and  refer- 
ences have  been  made  to  the  native  books  painted  in 
brilliant  colors  on  paper  and  deerskin.  Objects  of  minor 
art  comprise  pottery  vessels,  ornaments  of  gold,  silver, 
copper,  jade,  and  other  precious  materials,  textiles, 
pieces  of  feather  work,  etc. 

The  best  known  ceramic  products  are  made  of  orange 
colored  clay  and  carry  designs  in  black  that  sometimes 
are  realistic,  but  more  often  not.  The  tripod  dishes 
with  the  bottoms  roughed  by  cross  scoring  were  used 
to  grind  chili.  Heavy  bowls  with  loop  handles  on  the 


THE  AZTECS  215 

sides  and  a  channel  across  the  bottom  were  seemingly 
made  to  be  strung  on  ropes.  They  may  have  held  pitch 
and  been  used  for  street  lights.  The  pottery  figurines 
of  the  Aztecan  period  are  nearly  all  moulded  and  lack 
the  sharp  detail  of  the  earlier  examples.  They  often 
represent  deities  wearing  characteristic  dress  and  carry- 
ing ceremonial  objects. 

Comparatively  few  specimens  of  ancient  gold  work 
in  Mexico  escaped  the  cupidity  of  the  Spanish  con- 
querors, but  these  attest  a  remarkable  proficiency  in' 
casting.  The  moulds  were  made  of  clay  mixed  with 
ground  charcoal  and  the  melting  of  gold  was  accom- 
plished by  means  of  a  blow  pipe.  The  technique  seen  in 
Costa  Rican  gold  work  according  to  which  details 
falsely  appear  to  be  added  by  soldered  wire,  was  fol- 
lowed in  Mexico.  Modern  Mexican  filigree  bears  little 
relation  to  the  ancient  Indian  work,  but  is  probably  of 
Moorish  origin.  The  examples  of  Aztecan  gold  work  in- 
clude finger  rings,  earrings,  noserings,  labrets,  and 
pendants. 

Among  the  precious  and  semi-precious  stones  known 
to  the  Aztecs,  the  most  valuable  in  their  eyes  was  tur- 
quoise. This  was  probably  obtained  by  trade  from  the 
Pueblo  Indians.  It  was  mostly  cut  into  thin  plates  and 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  mosaic  objects.  Red  jasper, 
green  jade,  jet,  gold,  and  shell  of  various  colors  was  also 
used  in  these  mosaics.  Jade  was  highly  prized  and  was 
known  as  chalchihuitl.  Ornaments  of  obsidian,  a 
black  volcanic  glass,  and  of  crystal  quartz,  are  fairly 
common  and  others  of  opal  and  amethyst  have  been 
found. 

The  textile  decorations  in  vogue  at  the  coming  of  the 
Spaniards  can  be  restored  from  the  pictures  in  codices. 
Mantles  were  often  demanded  as  tribute  and  the  de- 


216 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


signs  are  given  on  the  conventional  bundles  in  the 
tribute  lists.  Garments  with  certain  designs  served  as 
insignia  of  office  for  several  of  the  priesthoods.  Feather 
mosaic  was  highly  prized  and  was  made  according  to 

several  methods.  Capes 
as  well  as  shields  and 
other  objects  were  cov- 
ered with  brilliant  feath- 
ers so  arranged  as  to 
bring  out  designs  in  the 
natural  colors. 


Fig.  78.  Mexican  Blanket 
with  the  Design  representing 
Sand  and  Water. 


The  Tarascans^The 

Aztecs  while  by  far  the 
most  important  tribe  in 
the  fifteenth  century  did 
hot  dominate  all  the  sur- 
rounding peoples.  For  instance,  most  of  the  State 
of  Michoacan  was  controlled  by  the  Tarascans  who 
defeated  every  expedition  sent  against  them.  The 
list  of  Tarascan  towns  is  a  long  one  but  Tzintzunt- 
zan  which  means  the  "Place  of  the  Humming  Birds" 
was  the  capital  and  principal  stronghold.  The  ancient 
history  of  the  Tarascans  is  little  known.  Although  the 
archaic  art  was  once  credited  to  these  people  they  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  ever  especially  proficient  in  it. 
Mounds  of  peculiar  T  shape  called  yatacas  are  found  in 
the  Tarascan  area.  They  rise  in  terraces  and  are  faced 
with  slabs  of  stone  laid  without  mortar.  Sculptures  of 
fine  quality  are  rare  in  connection  with  these  remains 
and  indicate  a  period  of  florescence  during  late  Toltecan 
times,  but  the  reclining  god  of  the  type  made  famous  by 
the  "Chacmool"  of  Chichen  Itza  has  been  noted. 
Many  fine  copper  celts  have  been  unearthed  in  this 
highly  mineralized  mountain  region. 


THE  AZTECS  217 

In  the  old  days  the  Tarascans  were  skilled  in  weaving 
and  were  particularly  famous  for  feather  mosaics  and 
feather  pictures  made  largely  of  the  brilliant  plumage  of 
humming  birds.  The  use  of  the  atlatl  or  spear- thrower 
survives  among  the  present-day  Tarascan  Indians. 
These  natives  also  make  gourd  vessels  covered  with 
colored  clays  in  pleasing  geometric  and  floral  designs. 

Southern  Mexico.  Somewhere  about  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century  Moctezuma  I  planted  an  Aztecan 
colony  at  Uaxyacac  on  the  edge  of  the  Zapotecan  terri- 
tory to  protect  the  trade  route  to  Tabasco.  This  name 
gave  rise  to  the  modern  Oaxaca.  From  this  point 
expeditions  were  sent  out  which  harrassed  the  Zapote- 
can towns  to  the  south.  In  the  Tribute  Roll  of  Mocte- 
zuma II  more  than  twenty  Zapotecan  towns  are  listed 
as  paying  tribute  that  consisted  of  gold  disks  and  gold 
dust,  jadeite  beads,  quetzal  feathers,  cochineal  dye,  fine 
textiles,  etc.  Very  little  is  preserved  concerning  the 
traditional  history  of  Southern  Mexico,  but  it  is  pre- 
sumed that  the  Zapotecan  culture  before  the  Aztecan 
influence  took  place  was  a  development  of  that  im- 
planted under  the  Mayan  horizon  and  which  we  have 
already  examined. 

Some  of  the  finest  pre-Cortesian  codices  that  have 
come  down  to  us  are  probably  of  Zapotecan  and  Mix- 
tecan  origin  although  reflecting  to  some  extent  the 
religion  of  the  Aztecs.  Several  of  these  have  been  inter- 
preted by  Doctor  Seler  in  terms  of  Aztecan  religion  and 
art.  Among  the  documents  from  southern  Mexico  that 
seemingly  belong  to  the  Aztecan  period  are : — 

Codex  Borgia  Codex   Fejervary-Mayer 

Codex  Vaticanus  3773  Codex  Vindobonensis 

Codex  Bologna  Codex  Nuttall 

Several  lienzos  or  documents  written  on  cloth  are  also 
from  this  region.  The  Lienzo  of  Amoltepec  which  is  a 


218 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


fine  example  of  this  class  is  conserved  in  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History.  The  documents  from 
southern  Mexico  are  distinguished  by  details  of  geomet- 
ric ornament  that  resemble  the  panels  of  geometric 
design  on  the  temples  of  Mitla.  They  record  historical 


8 


Fig.  79.  A  Year  Symbol  from  Southern  Mexico.  It  is  combined 
with  the  four  year  bearers,  House,  Rabbit,  Reed,  and  Stone.  In 
the  second  detail  the  day  6  Serpent  in  the  year  12  Rabbit  is  recorded. 


oooooo 


Fig.  80.      Year  Bearers  in  the  Codex  Porfirio  Diaz  ascribed  to  the 
Cuicatecan  tribe:  Wind,  Deer,  Herb,  and  Movement. 

events,  give  astronomical  information  and  present  much 
pictographic  evidence  on  various  ceremonies  and 
religious  usages^  In  giving  a  date  a  somewhat  different 
method  is  used  than  we  have  seen  in  the  historical 
records  from  the  Valley  of  Mexico.  There  is  a  definite 
year  sign  (Fig.  79)  and  with  it  is  the  year  bearer,  or 
initial  day  of  the  year,  and  often  the  particular  day  of 
the  event.  Unfortunately,  this  is  not  entirely  satis- 


(a) 


(b) 

Plate  XLIII.  (a)  A  Page  from  the  Codex  Nuttall,  recording  the 
Conquest  of  a  Town  situated  on  an  Island  of  the  Sea.  The  con- 
querors come  in  boats  and  the  conquest  is  indicated  by  a  spear 
thrust  into  the  place  name  hieroglyph.  The  crocodile,  flying  fish, 
and  the  sea  serpent  are  represented  in  the  water;  (b)  Zapotecan 
Cruciform  Tomb  near  Mitla. 


219 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

factory  because  no  month  signs  are  recorded  and  a  day 
with  a  certain  name  and  number  frequently  occurs 
twice  in  one  year.  The  year  bearers  are  the  same  as 
among  the  Aztecs  for  most  of  the  documents,  namely, 
Knife,  House,  Rabbit,  and  Reed,  but  in  a  manuscript 
ascribed  to  a  tribe  in  southern  Mexico  called  the 
Cuicatecs,  the  year  bearers  are  Wind,  Deer,  Herb,  and 
Movement  (Fig.  80).  Conquest  of  a  town  is  shown  by 
a  spear  thrust  into  the  place  name.  Individuals  are 
often  named  after  the  day  on  which  they  were  born. 
Thus  8  Deer  is  a  warrior  hero  in  the  Codex  Nuttall  and 
3  Knife  is  a  woman  who  also  plays  a  prominent  part. 
In  some  of  the  manuscripts  from  southern  Mexico  we 
see  details  that  are  very  close  to  those  in  the  codices  of 
the  Mayas. 


-  Mitla.  The  famous  temples  of  Mitla  are  the  best- 
preserved  examples  of  architecture  on  the  highlands  of 
Mexico.  They  are  peculiar  in  form  and  decoration. 
"he  word  Mitla  is  a  corruption  of  the  Aztecan  word 
Mictlan,  place  of  the  dead.  This  site  was  the  burial 
ground  of  Zapotecan  kings  and  may  have  been  a  place 
of  pilgrimage.  It  seems  to  have  been  conquered  by  the 
Aztecs  in  the  last  decade  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
While  the  architecture  belongs  in  a  class  by  itself  the 
frescoes  have  the  distinct  character  of  the  Aztecan 
period. 

At  this  site  we  miss  the  lofty  pyramids  of  Monte 
Alban.  There  is  one  fairly  large  mound  at  Mitla  but  it 
has  no  surviving  superstructure.  The  temples  are 
placed  on  low  platforms  which  usually  contain  cruciform 
tombs.  The  buildings  are  carefully  oriented  and  are 
assembled  in  groups  of  four  which  almost  enclose  square 
paved  courts.  The  heavy  walls  have  surfaces  of  cut 
stone  and  a  filling  of  concrete  or  rubble  and  are  orna- 


(6) 


a 


Plate  XLIV.  (a)  Detail  of  Wall  Construction  at  Mitla,  showing  the 
separately  Carved  Stones;  (6,  c)  The  God  Macuilxochitl,  Five  Flower, 
as  shown  in  a  Mexican  Codex  and  in  pottery  from  Southern  Mexico. 


221 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

mented  with  longitudinal  panels  of  geometric  designs 
arranged  according  to  a  carefully  worked  out  plan.  The 
geometric  patterns  are  entirely  formal  and  are  mosaics 
of  separately  carved  stones  which  fit  neatly  together. 
The  chambers  are  long  and  narrow  and  formerly  had 
flat  roofs  which  have  completely  vanished.  The  door- 
ways are  wide  and  low,  usually  with  two  piers.  The 
lintels  are  blocks  of  carefully  trimmed  stone  of  great 
length  and  weight.  All  the  outer  surfaces  of  the  Mitla 
temples  seem  to  have  been  sized  with  plaster  and 
painted  red.  The  frescoes,  traces  of  which  can  still  be 
seen  in  several  buildings,  are  in  red  and  black  upon  a 
white  base.  Various  gods  and  ceremonies  are  repre- 


Fig.  81.     Wall  Paintings  of  Mitla,  resembling  in  Style  the  Picto- 
graphic  Art  of  the  Codices. 

sented,  but  only  the  upper  portion  of  the  bands,  which 
show  the  heavens  can  be  made  out  completely. 

Cruciform  tombs  are  found  under  several  of  the 
temples  at  Mitla  as  well  as  at  a  number  of  neighboring 
sites  such  as  Xaaga  and  Guiaroo.  In  these  tombs  the 
designs  in  panels  appear  on  the  inside  and  are  carved 
directly  on  large  blocks  of  stone.  Pottery  remains  are 
rare  in  the  cruciform  tombs  of  the  Mitla  type  but  a  few 
examples  of  gold  work  have  been  discovered  in  them. 

Within  a  short  distance  of  Mitla  is  a  fortified  hill  with 
several  heavy  walls  that  still  stand  to  the  height  of  per- 
haps twenty  feet.  In  the  flat  valley  between  this  hill 


THE  AZTECS  223 

and  the  ruins  a  considerable  number  of  potsherds  are 
plowed  up  in  the  field. 

Aztecan  Influence  in  Central  America.    The 

influence  from  the  late  Mexican  cultures  can  be  traced 
far  to  the  south.  In  Salvador  the  cults  of  Tlaloc,  Xipe 
Totec,  and  other  Aztecan  gods  were  fully  developed. 
The  occurrence  of  the  "Chacmool"  in  Salvador  has  al- 
ready been  pointed  out  and  it  may  be  added  that  the 
Mexican  ball  game,  tlachtli,  seems  also  to  have  been 
known  here. 

Decorative  motives  that  show  affiliations  to  those  of 
the  Aztecs  and  their  immediate  predecessors  are  found 
as  far  south  as  Costa  Rica  but  the  strain  is  thin  and  not 
to  be  compared  with  the  evidences  of  culture  connec- 
tion over  wide  territories  that  are  found  on  earlier 
horizons. 

CONCLUSION 

This  survey  of  ancient  history  in  Mexico  and  Central 
America  makes  clear  a  fact  that  doubtless  will  be  found 
to  hold  true  of  archaeology  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 
The  earliest  culture  was  by  far  the  most  homogeneous 
and  widespread  which  probably  means  that  it  lasted  for 
a  long  time  and  modified  slowly.  At  the  same  time  it 
must  be  remembered  that  owing  to  the  connection  of 
this  archaic  art  with  agriculture,  the  initial  spread  may 
have  been  rapid.  The  Mayan  culture  that  followed  was 
specialized  to  a  humid  lowland  environment  and  while 
the  influence  that  it  exerted  over  the  life  of  other  nat- 
tions  was  very  great  the  exact  characters  of  the  Mayan 
civilization  were  not  reproduced  elsewhere.  The  cycle 
of -this  civilization  was  comparatively  short  and  that  of 
the  civilizations  that  followed  were  even  shorter. 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

The  debt  which  the  world  owes  to  these  ancient 
civilizations  of  Mexico  and  Central  America  becomes 
apparent  when  we  list  even  the  more  important  of  the 
agricultural  plants  and  technical  processes,  fibers,  gums, 
dyes,  etc.,  which  were  taken  over  by  Europeans  from 
the  American  Indians.  Special  notice  should  be  'given 
to  the  following: — 

Food  Plants  Cultivated  by  American  Indians 

Maize  Pineapples  Cashew  nut 

Potatoes  Nispero  Pacay 

Sweet  potatoes  Barbados  cherry  Jocote 

Tomatoes  Strawberries  Star  apples 

Pumpkins  Persimmons  Paraguay  tea 

Squashes  Papaws  Alligator  pear 

Lima  beans  Guava  Sour  sop 

Kidney  beans  Arracacha  Sweet  sop 

Peppers  >  Peanuts  Custard  apple 

Cacao  Oca  Cassava 

Important  Economic  Contributions  of  American 
Indians 

MEDICINES  FIBERS 

Tobacco  Cotton 

Cinchona  (Quinine)  Henequen 

Cascara  Sagrada 
Cocaine 

DOMESTICATED  ANIMALS  GUMS 

Alpaca  Rubber 

Llama  Copal 

Guinea  pig  Peruvian    Balsam 

Dog 

Muscovy  duck 
Turkey 

DYES 

Anil 

Cochineal 

Logwood 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A  brief  list  of  books  on  Mexico  and  Central  America  is  appended. 
These  books  may  be  consulted  in  the  Museum  Library  as  well  as  others 
referred  to  in  the  more  complete  bibliographies  that  will  be  found  in  the 
works  cited. 

BANCROFT,  H.  H.  The  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States.  5  vols.  New 
York  and  London,  1875-1876. 

BANDELIER,  ADOLPH  F.  On  the  Distribution  and  Tenure  of  Lands  and 
the  Customs  with  Respect  to  Inheritance,  among  the  Ancient  Mexicans 
(Eleventh  Annual  Report,  Peabody  Museum  of  American  Archaeo- 
logy and  Ethnology,  vol.  2,  no.  2,  pp.  384-448,  Cambridge,  1878.) 

Social  Organization  and  Mode  of  Government 

of  the  Ancient  Mexicans  (Twelfth  Annual  Report,  Peabody  Museum 
of  American  Archeology  and  Ethnology,  vol.  2,  no.  3,  Cambridge, 

1879.)  ^ 

BOWDITCH,  C.  P.  The  Numeration,  Calendar  Systems  and  Astronomical 
Knowledge  of  the  May  as.  Cambridge,  1910. 

BRANSFORD,  J.  F.  Archaeological  Researches  in  Nicaragua  (Smithsonian 
Contributions  to  Knowledge,  XXV,  Art  2,  pp.  1-96,  1881.) 

BRINTON,  D.  G.  The  Maya  Chronicles.  Philadelphia,  1882.  (No.  i  of 
Brinton's  Library  of  Aboriginal  American  Literature.) 

The  Annals  of  the  Cakchiquds.  The  original  text  with 
a  translation,  notes  and  introduction.  Philadelphia,  1885.  (No.  6 
of  Brinton's  Library  of  Aboriginal  American  Literature.) 

Essays  of  an  Americanist.     Philadelphia,  1890. 

BULLETIN  28.  Mexican  and  Central  American  Antiquities,  Calendar 
Systems  and  History.  Twenty-four  papers  by  Eduard  Seler,  E.  Fors- 
temann,  Paul  Schellhas,  Carl  Sapper  and  E.  P.  Dieseldorff.  Trans- 
lated from  the  German  under  the  supervision  of  Charles  P.  Bowditch 
(Bulletin  28,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Washington,  1904.) 

CHARNAY,  D.  The  Ancient  Cities  of  the  New  World.  Trans,  by  J. 
Gonino  and  H.  S.  Conant.  London,  1887. 

DIAS  DEL  CASTILLO,  BERNAL.  The  True  History  of  the  Conquest  of 
Mexico,  1568.  3  vols.  (Translated  by  A.  P.  Maudslay.  Hakluyt 
Society,  London,  1908.) 

FORSTEMANN,  E.  Commentary  of  the  Maya  Manuscript  in  the  Royal 
Public  Library  of  Dresden  (Papers,  Peabody  Museum,  IV,  No.  2, 
pp.  48-266,  1906.) 

225 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 

GANN,  T.  Mounds  in  Northern  Honduras  (Nineteenth  Annual  Report, 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  part  2,  pp.  661-692,  Washington, 
1897-1898.) 

HARTMANN,  C.  V.  Archceological  Researches  in  Costa  Rica  (The  Royal 
Ethnographical  Museum  in  Stockholm,  Stockholm,  1901.) 

Archaeological  Researches  on  the  Pacific  Coast  of  Costa 
Rica  (Memoirs,  Carnegie  Institute,  vol.  3,  pp.  1-95,  1907.) 

HOLMES,  W.  H.  Ancient  Art  of  the  Province  of  Chiriqui  (Sixth  Annual 
Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  pp.  3-187,  Washington, 
1888.) 

Archceological  Studies  among  the  Ancient  Cities   in 
Mexico  (Publications,  Field  Columbian  Museum,  Chicago,  1895-1897.) 

JOYCE,  T.  A.  Mexican  Archaeology.  An  Introduction  to  the  Archae- 
ology of  the  Mexican  and  Maya  Civilizations  of  pre-Spanish  America. 
New  York  and  London,  1914. 

KINGSBOROUGH,  LORD.  Antiquities  of  Mexico.  9  vols.,  folio.  London, 
1831-1848. 

LEHMANN,  W.  Methods  and  Results  in  Mexican  Research.  Trans,  by 
Seymour  de  Ricci.  Paris,  1909. 

LUMHOLTZ,  C.     Unknown  Mexico.     2  vols.     New  York,  1902. 

Symbolism  of  the  Huichol  Indians  (Memoirs,  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  vol.  3,  part  1,  1900.) 

Decorative  Art  of  the  Huichol  Indians  (Memoirs,  Ameri- 
can Museum  of  Natural  History,  vol.  3,  part  4, 1904.) 

MAcCyRDY,  G.  G.  A  Study  of  Chiriquian  Antiquities  (Memoirs,  Con- 
necticut Academy  of  Sciences,  vol.  3, 1911.) 

MAUDSLAY,  A.  P.  Biologia  Centrali- Americana,  or  Contributions  to  the 
Knowledge  of  the  Flora  and  Fauna  of  Mexico  and  Central  America. 
Archaeology,  4  vols.  of  text  and  plates.  London,  1889-1902. 

MEMOIRS  OF  THE  PEABODY  MUSEUM,  vols.  1-5.  Reports  on  excava- 
tions and  exploration  by  Gordon,  Maler,  Thompson,  and  Tozzer. 

MORLEY,  S.  G.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Maya  Hieroglyphs 
(Bulletin  57,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Washington,  1915.) 

PENAFIEL,  A.  Monumentos  del  arte  Mexicano  antiguo.  3  vols.  Berlin, 
1890. 

Nomenclatura  geografica  de  Mexico.     Mexico,  1897. 

SAHAGUN,  BERNARDINO  DE.  Histoire  generate  des  C  hoses  de  la  Nouvelle- 
Espagne  (Edited  and  translated  by  D.  Jourdanet  and  Remi  Simeon), 
1880. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  227 

SCHELLAS,  P.  Representation  of  Deities  of  the  Maya  Manuscripts.  2nd 
edition  revised.  (Translated  by  Miss  Selma  Wesselhoeft  and  Miss 
A.  M.  Parker,  Papers,  Peabody  Museum,  vol.  4,  No.  1,  pp.  7-47,  1904. ) 

SELER  E.  Die  alien  Ansiedelungen  von  Chaculd  im  Districkte  Nenton  des 
Departments  Huehuetenango  der  Republic  Guatemala.  Berlin,  1901. 

Gesammelte  Abhandlungen  zur  amerikanischen  Sprach-  und 
Alterthumskunde.     3  vols.     Berlin,  1902-1908. 

SELER,  EDUARD.  Codex  Vaticanus  No.  3773  (Codex  Vaticanus  B). 
An  Old  Mexican  Pictorial  Manuscript  in  the  Vatican^  Library  (Trans- 
lated by  A.  H.  Keane) .  Berlin  and  London,  1902-1903. 

SPINDEN,  H.  J.  A  Study  of  Maya  Art  (Memoirs,  Peabody  Museum, 
vol.  6,  1913.) 

SQUIER,  E.  G.  The  States  of  Central  America:  their  Geography,  Topo- 
graphy, Climate,  Population,  etc.  New  York,  1858. 

STEPHENS,  J.  L.  Central  America,  Chiapas  and  Yucatan.  2  vols.  New 
York,  1841. 

Incidents  of  Travel  in  Yucatan.  2  vols.    New  York  1843. 

THOMAS,  C.  A  Study  of  the  Manuscript  Troano  (U.  S.  Geographical  and 
Geological  Survey  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region,  Contributions  to 
American  Ethnology,  V,  p.  1-224,  1882.) 

THOMAS,  C.  AND  Sw ANTON,  JOHN  R.  Indian  Languages  of  Mexico  and 
Central  America  (Bulletin  44,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Wash- 
ington, 1911.) 

TOZZER  A.  M.  A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Mayas  and  Lacandones.  New 
York,  1907. 


INDEX 


Acropolis,  artificial,  68,  69. 

Adobe,  56;  houses.  Mexican,  15. 

Agriculture,  connection  with  archaic 
art,  223;  distribution  of,  59,  60; 
influence  on  Mayan  culture,  65; 
invention  of,  46-49;  spread  and 
development  of,  56,  59. 

Ahpuch,  Lord  of  Death,  93^-94. 

Alligator  ware,  62. 

Alphabet,  of  Landa,  112. 

Altars,  Mayan,  77;  Quirigua,  124. 

Amulets,  gold,  174. 

Animals,  domestication  of,  52-53, 
224. 

Annals  of  Quauhtitlan,  150, 179, 182. 

Arch,  in  Mayan  architecture,  72,  73. 

Archaic,  art,  52-53,  216;  art,  on 
borders  of  Mayan  area,  67;  art, 
local  developments  of,  59-63;  art, 
wide  distribution  of,  223;  culture, 
164;  culture,  distribution  of,  58; 
culture,  frontier  cities  of  the 
Northwest,  164;  figurines,  48-51; 
horizon,  43-64;  horizon,  exten- 
sions of,  56-59;  pottery,  53-54; 
stone  sculptures,  54-56. 

Architecture,  brilliant  period  of  the 
Mayas,  131;  historical  sequence 
determined  byr  126;  Mayan,  67- 
76;  Mitla,  220;  period  of  League 
of  Mayapan,  132-133;  Transition 
Period,  Mayan,  132;  types,  La 
Quemada,  161. 

Aristocracies,  among  the  Aztecs,  185. 

Art,  archaic,  43,  52-53,  67,  216;  ar- 
chaic, characterization  of,  49; 
archaic,  distribution  of,  223;  ar- 
chaic, local  developments  of,  59- 


63;  Chorotegan,  166-167;  deco- 
rative Isthmian  region,  61;  high 
development  of  Mayan,  65;  mas- 
sive sculptural,  76-77;  Mayan, 
130,  131,  132,  133,  134;  Mayan, 
historical  development  of,  124- 
127;  Mayan,  serpent  in,  82-85; 
Santa  Lucia  Cozumalhualpa,  164; 
sequence  in,  124;  Tarascan,  43; 
Toltecan,  influenced  by  Mayan, 
153;  Totonacan,  close  corres- 
pondence to  Mayan,  146,  149; 
Zapotecan,  influenced  by  Mayan, 
139. 

Arts,  minor,  Aztecan,  214-216. 

Astronomy,  Mayan  knowledge  of, 
65,  97,  122. 

Atlatl,  52,  217. 

Atzcapotzalco,  181,  184;  stratifica- 
tion at,  44-45,  153. 

Aztecan  history,  181-184. 

Aztecs,  177-224;  and  Mayas,  com- 
pared to  Greeks  and  Romans, 
177-179. 

Bar  and  dot  numerals,  103, 115, 141. 
Basketry,  Mayan,  81. 
Bats,  represented  in  ancient  art,  20. 
Bells,   Aztecan,   214;   copper,    164; 

copper  and  gold,  174. 
Ben,  Mayan  day  sign,  79. 
Blankets,  Mexican,  37. 
Brilliant  Period,  Mayan  civilization, 

67,  131 
Buildings,  Mayan,  69. 


Caban,  Mayan  day  sign,  79. 
Cakchiquels,  135,  186. 


229 


230 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


Calendar,  annual,  Mayan,  107;  Cen- 
tral American,  145;  ceremonial, 
Aztecan,  203;  lunar,  Mayan,  97, 
107-109;  Mayan,  scheme  as  pre- 
sented in  Codex  Tro-Cortesianus, 
102;  religious,  Aztecan,  207-208; 
Venus,  Mayan,  109-112. 

Calendar  round,  Mayan,  101-103. 

Calendar  Stone,  189-192,  194,  206. 

Calpolli,  Aztecan,  186,  187. 

Cannibalism,  41. 

Captives,  as  represented  in  Mayan 
art,  85-86. 

Caribs,  39,  41. 

Caricature,  in  archaic  figurines,  48, 
52. 

Carving,  development  in  style  at 
Copan,  123;  on  Mayan  monu- 
ments, 124;  stone,  at  Xochimilco, 
155. 

Celts,  copper,  Tarascan,  216;  stone, 
54. 

Cempoalan,  24,  150,  171. 

Cenote,  18;  sacred,  at  Chichen  Itza, 
28. 

Cephalic  index,  Mexico  and  Central 
America,  42. 

Ceremonial  Bar,  Mayan,  86,  91,  92, 
93,  124. 

Ceremonies,  Aztecan,  207-212; 
Mexican,  36. 

Chacmool,  170-172,  216,  223. 

Chalchuihtlicue,  205. 

Chichen  Itza,  127,  129,  133-134, 
152,  153,  158,  171. 

Chichimecas,  151,  179-181. 

Chiconoztoc,  150,  160,  181. 

Chiefs,  Aztecan,  185,  187;  Toltecan, 
151;  war,  Aztecan,  183. 

Chilan  Balam,  Books  of,  122,  128- 
129. 

Chimayo  blankets,  37. 


Cholula,  158-160,  181. 
Chorotegan  culture,  166-172. 
Chronology,  Aztecan,  182;  bases  of 
Mayan,    122-124;    Mayan,    122, 
127,128;  Mayan,  correlation  with 
Christian,  67,  129;  Mayan,  cor- 
relation with  Mexican  dates,  152; 
Mayan,    established    by    dated 
monuments  and  style  of  sculpture, 
128. 

Civilization,  Mayan,  65-135,  223. 

Civilizations,  lesser,  in  Mexico  and 
Central  America,  137-175. 

Clans,  kinship,  186. 

Climate,  Mexico  and  Central  Am- 
erica, 13-14. 

Cloisonne  pottery,  158, 161-162;  San 
Juan  Teotihuacan,  158. 

Coatlicue,  189,  195,  196-197. 

Codex  Aubin,  183. 
Magliabecchiano,  209. 
Nuttall,  219,  220. 
Telleriano  Remensis,  180. 

Codices,  Mayan,  115-122,  220; 
Mayan  gods  in,  91,  93;  Mexican, 
197;  southern  Mexico,  143,  217- 
218. 

Colhuacan,  stratification  at,  44-45. 

Collectors,  specimens  in  Mexican 
Hall,  6. 

Colonization,  Central  America,  by 
Spaniards,  22. 

Columns,  sculptured  at  Tula,  158. 

Comalcalco,  137. 

Commerce,  Aztecan  objects  of,  200. 

Composition  in  design,  Mayan,  86- 
89. 

Conquest,  history  of  Spanish,  21-31 ; 
of  Mexico,  22-29. 

Conquest,  symbol  for,  220. 

Construction  of  walls,  69,  72-76, 
161. 


INDEX 


231 


Copan,  19,  66,  67,  68,  69,  76,  124, 
126. 

Cora,  35. 

Correlations,  dates  with  style  of 
carving  in  Mayan  monuments, 
127-128. 

Crocodile  motive,  in  Chorotegan 
art,  167,  168,  170,  171,  172. 

Crops,  indigenous  and  introduced, 
Mexico  and  Central  America,  21 ; 
principal,  Mayan  region,  65,  67. 

Cross-section,  typical,  Mayan  tem- 
ple, 73,  74. 

Cult,  of  the  quarters,  Aztecan,  207. 

Cults,  Aztecan  gods,  223. 

Culture,  Carib,  39,  41;  Chorotegan, 
166-172;  Huichol,  36;  Lacandone 
Indians,  39;  Mayan,  65-135; 
Mosquito  Indians,  41;  southern 
Mexico,  217-220;  Tarascans,  216- 
217;  Toltecs,  150-154,  179;  Tot- 
onacan,  145-150;  Zapotecan, 
139-145. 

Cycle,  defined,  97. 

Dances,  hunting,  Huichol,  36. 

Dated  monuments,  127-128. 

Dates,  101,  127,  132;  early  Mayan, 
130,  137;  Toltecan,  150. 

Day  count,  Mayan,  elements  of  the, 
97-99. 

Day  signs,  Aztecan,  191,  199,  200; 
hieroglyphs  used  on  Mayan  pot- 
tery, 79;  Mayan,  98. 

Death  God,  93,  94,  102. 

Decoration,  Mayan  buildings,  76; 
Mayan  pottery,  79;  pottery,  ar- 
chaic period,  53-54. 

Decorative  motives,  Chorotegan 
art,  166;  distribution  of,  223. 

Design,  composition  and  perspect- 
ive, Mayan,  86-89;  on  Mexican 


blanket,  216;  motives,  Costa  Rica, 
168,  170,  171,  172. 

Designs,  on  blankets,  37;  developed 
in  negative  painting,  163-164; 
geometric,  at  Mitla,  222;  on 
Mayan  pottery,  78,  80,  81;  poly- 
chrome pottery,  79;  realistic, 
Mayan  pottery,  78,  79;  textile, 
Mayan,  81;  Totonacan  sacrificial 
yokes  and  paddle  stones,  149; 
woven,  Huichol,  35,  36. 

Donors,  collections  in  Mexican  Hall, 
5-6. 

Dresden  Codex,  94,  108,  110,  115, 
116,  121,  126.  , 

Dress,  shown  in  archaic  figurines, 
51;  Mexico  and  Central  America, 
39;  modern  Mexican,  37. 

Drums,  Aztecan,  214. 

Dyes,  224. 

Early  Period,  in  Mayan  history,  130. 

Earrings,  archaic  figurines,  51-52. 

Economic  contributions,  of  Ameri- 
can Indians,  224. 

Ehecatl,  God  of  Winds,  53,  204. 

Ek  Ahau,  war  god,  Mayan,  96. 

Elevations,  Mayan  buildings,  74r-76. 

Environment,  Mayan,  137;  Mexico 
and  Central  America,  13-21. 

Ethnology,  34-41,  51-52. 

European  contact,  history  of,  21-31. 

Exploration,  of  Central  America,  by 
Spaniards,  21-22. 

Eyes,  color  and  Mongoloid  tilt,  42; 
types  of,  on  archaic  figurines,  51 ; 
on  Totonacan  figurines,  146. 

Face  numerals,  Mayan  inscriptions, 
105. 

Fauna,  Mexico  and  Central  Am- 
erica, 19-20. 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


Feast,  in  connection  with  planet 
Venus,  212;  of  the  twelfth  month, 
210-211. 

Feasts,  Aztecan,  208,  211. 

Feather  mosaics,  Aztecan,  216;  Tar- 
ascan,  217. 

Fibers,  224. 

Figurines,  archaic,  48,  49-51;  ar- 
chaic, Isthmian  region,  56,  60; 
archaic,  from  Salvador,  50;  clay, 
transition  period,  67;  female,  dis- 
tribution of,  53,  57,  61-62;  pot- 
tery, Aztecan,  215;  pottery,  San 
Juan  Teotihuacan,  157. 

Filigree,  modern  Mexican  work,  215. 

Flageolets,.  Aztecan,  214. 

Flora,  Mexico  and  Central  America, 
20-21. 

Flores,  28. 

Flying  fagade,  on  Mayan  buildings, 
76. 

Food  plants,  most  widely  dis- 
tributed in  the  New  World,  47; 
cultivated  by  American  Indians, 
224. 

Frescoes,  Mitla,  222. 

Frontier  cities,  of  the  northwest, 
160-164. 

Funerary  urns,  Zapotecan,  141-143; 
also  frontispiece. 

Games,  ceremonial,  Toltecan,  153. 

Genealogical  table,  Mexican,  204. 

Genealogies,  Aztecan,  185. 

Geography,  Mexico  and  Central 
America,  13-21. 

Geology,  Mexico  and  Central  Am- 
erica, 19. 

Gladiator  stones,  194. 

Glaze,  on  modern  Mexican  pottery, 
37. 

Glyphs,  period,  Mayan,  105. 


God  houses,  Huichol,  36. 

God  of  War,  Mayan,  102. 

God's  eyes,  Huichol,  36. 

Gods,  Aztecan,  201,  203,  205,  209; 
beast,  Mayan  representation  of, 
92;  in  Dresden  Codex,  94;  Mayan, 
79,  82,  84,  91,  92-96,  121;  Mexi- 
can, 53,  205;  represented  in  pot- 
tery from  San  Juan  Teotihuacan, 
157. 

Gold  work,  ancient,  Isthmian  re- 
gion, 63;  Aztecan,  215;  in  cruci- 
form tombs,  222;  Isthmian,  172- 
175;  Mayan,  81;  Zapotecan,  143. 

Gourd  vessels,  Tarascan,  217. 

Government,  Aztecan,  187;  theo- 
cratic, of  the  Mayas,  86. 

Graves,  Isthmian,  gold  objects 
found  in,  174. 

Great  Ball  Court,  Chichen  Itza, 
134,  153. 

Great  Mound,  Copan,  131. 

Great  Period,  Mayan  history,  131. 

Grooving,  in  archaic  figurines,  50. 

Groundplans,  Toltecan  buildings, 
153;  Yaxchilan  temples,  72. 

Guatuso,  41. 

Gums,  224. 

Haab,  105. 

Hair,  Indians  of  Mexico  and  Central 
America,  42. 

Headdresses,  shown  in  archaic  figu- 
rines, 51. 

Hieroglyphs,  Aztecan,  of  precious 
stones,  197;  containing  phonetic 
element  kin,  114;  decorative  use 
on  pottery,  Mayan,  79;  of  the 
Four  Directions,  114;  Mayan,  89, 
112-115;  Nahuan,  198;  on  stelae 
at  Monte  Alban,  141;  on  the 
Stone  of  Tizoc,  194,  195;  at 
Xochicalco,  155. 


INDEX 


233 


Hikule  worship,  Huichol  and  Tara- 
humare,  36. 

History,  Aztecan,  181-184;  Chichi- 
mecan,  179,  181;  of  European 
contact,  Mexico  and  Central  Am- 
erica, 21-31;  Mayan,  summary 
of,  130-135;  summary  in  relation 
to  archaeological  evidences,  on 
the  archaic  horizon,  63-64;  Tol- 
tecan,  150-152;  traditional,  south- 
ern Mexico,  217. 

Hochob,  70. 

Horse,  introduction  of,  59. 

Hotun  periods,  127. 

Houses,  adobe,  Mexican,  15;  ar- 
chaic period,  54-56;  Mayan,  69. 

Huastecas,  145,  146. 

Huichol,  35,  36. 

Huijnli,  decorated,  38,  39. 

Huitzilopochtli,  189,  194,  203,  210. 

Human,  form,  carved  in  stone,  ar- 
chaic period,  54;  form,  in  Mayan 
art,  82,  85-86,  124;  heads,  types 
of,  at  Yaxchilan,  87. 

Hunting  implements,  39,  41. 

Ihuicatl,  206. 

Imix,  day  sign,  Mayan,  79;  first  day 
of  the  formal  tonalamatl,  101. 

Incised  designs  on  pottery,  81. 

Influence,  Aztecan,  in  Central  Am- 
erica, 223;  Mayas,  on  other  civi- 
lizations, 137;  Mexican  in  north- 
ern Yucatan,  152. 

Initial  Series  date,  Chichen  Itza, 
129;  Great  Period,  132;  impor- 
tance in  determination  of  cor- 
relations, 127;  Transition  Period, 
132. 

Initial  Series  dates,  109,  111,  127, 
128. 


Inscriptions,  hieroglyphic,  94;  hiero- 
glyphic, on  Mayan  monuments, 
112,  127;  Mayan,  113;  Mayan, 
face  numerals  on,  105;  Mayan, 
Great  Period,  131;  on  Mayan 
monuments,  127-128;  typical 
Mayan,  106. 

Invention^  of  agriculture,  in  the 
New  World,  46,  49. 

Irrigation,  in  the  New  World.  47,  56. 

Itzamna,  92,  96,  102. 

Ixchel,  Goddess  of  the  Rainbow,  96. 

Ixchelbelyax,  Mayan  god,  96. 

Ixtubtun,  Mayan  god,  96. 

Jade,  carving  of,  Mayan,  81;  Zapo- 
tecan,  143,  144;  work  in,  Aztec, 
215. 

Jaguar  design,  167,  168. 

Kan,  day  sign;   Mayan,  79;  maize 

sign,  121. 
Katun,  128,  129. 
Kukulcan,  93. 

Lacandone  Indians,  39,  135. 

Lakes,  Mexico  and  Central  America, 
17,  18-19. 

Land  laws,  Aztecan,  186. 

Language,  Totonacan,  45. 

Languages,  Central  America,  212; 
Mexico  and  Central  America,  31- 
34. 

La  Quemada,  159,  160-161. 

League,  Aztecan,  184;  of  Mayapan, 
132-133. 

Leiden  Plate,  130. 

Lienzo  of  Amoltepec,  217-218. 

Linguistic  stocks,  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral America,  31-34. 

Long-nosed  God,  Mayan,  91,  93, 
143,  205. 


234 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


Lunar,  calendar,  Mayan,  97,  107- 
109;  period,  in  Mayan  calendar, 
107,  108. 

Macuilxochitl,    God    Five    Flower, 

221. 

Manikin  Scepter,  86,  91,  93. 
Maize  God,  Mayan,  92,  94-96,  119, 

121. 
Maize,  distribution  of  use,  47;  most 

important  food  of  the  New  World, 

46-47;  staple,  in  Mayan  region, 

65,  67. 
Manioc,  cultivation  of,  47;  use  and 

preparation  by  Carib,  37,  39,  41. 
Marimba,  214. 
Mask  panels,  on  Mayan  structures, 

76-77,  133. 

Mayan,  civilization,  65-135;  lin- 
guistic stock,  distribution  of,  33- 

34. 
Mayas,   and  Aztecs,   compared   to 

Greeks  and  Romans,  177-179. 
Mazatecas,  186. 
Medicines,  224. 
Metal,  ornaments  made  of,  Mayas, 

81;  Zapotecan,  143. 
Metates,     elaborately     sculptured, 

168-170. 
Mexican  Hall,  American  Museum, 

5-6. 
Mexican    influence,    period    of,    in 

Mayan  history,  133-134. 
Mictlan,  206r  207,  220. 
Mictlanteuctli,  206. 
Middle  Period,  in  Mayan  history, 

131. 

Migrations,  Aztecan,  181-182. 
Mitla,  19,  143,  220-223. 
Mixtecas,  186. 


Modeling,  archaic  figurines,  50;  clay, 
San  Juan  Teotihuacan,  157. 

Modern    Period,    Mayan    history, 

134-135. 

Moyotes,  Zapotecan  burial  mounds, 
143. 

•Monkey,  in  Chorotegan  art,  166- 
167. 

Monte  Alban,  138,  139,  141. 

Month,  Mayan,  twenty  day  signs 
of,  98;  signs,  of  Mayan  Year,  100. 

Months,  Aztecan,  201;  Mayan, 
length  of,  97;  Mayan,  names  of, 
99. 

Monument,  earliest  dated,  130. 

Monuments,  Mayan,  dated,  127- 
128;  sequence  of  Mayan  deter- 
mined by  style  of  sculpture,  124. 

Moon,  representations  of  the,  108. 

Mosaic,  feather,  Aztecan,  216;  fea- 
ther, Tarascan,  217;  masks  and 
ceremonial  objects,  81. 

Mosquito  Indians,  41. 

Mound,  artificial,  at  Gopan,  69; 
pyramidal  developed  at  end  of 
archaic  period,  54,  56. 

Mounds,  at  Atzcapotzalco,  44; 
foundation  for  temples,  69;  Tar- 
ascan, 216. 

Mountains,  Mexico  and  Central 
America,  14-16. 

Music,  Aztecan,  212-214. 

Musical  instruments,  Aztecan,  213- 
214. 

Mythology,  Aztecan,  181,  191,  201, 
203;  Mayan  and  Aztecan,  205. 

Myths,  cosmogonic,  205. 

Nahuan,  linguistic  stock,  distribu- 
tion of,  32-33;  tribes,  led  in  de- 
velopment of  archaic  art,  43. 


INDEX 


235 


Naranjo,  67,  124,  131. 

Negative  painting,  162-164. 

Nezahualcoyotl,  212. 

Nose,  Indians  of  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral America,  52. 

Noserings,  on  archaic  figurines,  51- 
52. 

Notation  system,  Mayan,  97,  103- 
104. 

Numbers,  Aztecan,  200;  Mayan, 
103-104;  Mexican  system  of,  201. 

Numerals,  Zapotecan  system  of, 
141. 

Ochpaniztli,  eleventh  feast  of  the 

year,  209. 

Old  Man  God,  Mayan,  79. 
Olin,  Aztecan  day  sign,  191,  192. 
Olmecs,  150. 
Ometeuctli,  203,  206. 
Organization,  political,  Mayan,  177; 

social,  Aztecan,  184. 
Ornaments,  of  semi-precious  stones, 

Aztecan,  215;  shown  on  archaic 

figurines,  51-52. 
Otomis,  179. 

Pachtli,  twelfth  month,  Aztecan, 
210. 

Paddle-shaped  stones,  Totonacan, 
149. 

Painting,  archaic  figurines,  50,  61- 
62;  body,  shown  in  archaic  figu- 
rines, 52;  on  Mayan  pottery,  61; 
on  pottery,  167;  Zapotecan  pot- 
tery, 143. 

Palaces,  structure  of  Mayan,  69. 

Palenque,  67,  76. 

Palmate  stone,  148. 

Pantheon,  Mayan,  89-96. 

Papantla,  149. 

Peregrinations,  Aztecan,  182. 


Peresianus  Codex,  115. 

Period,  denned,  in  Mayan  time 
count,  97;  glyphs,  Mayan,  103, 
105. 

Permutation  system,  Mayan,  97- 
99. 

Perspective,  in  Mayan  design,  86- 
89. 

Peyote  worship,  Huichol  and  Tara- 
humare,  36. 

Phonetic  use  of  signs,  Mayan  hiero- 
glyphs, 112,  114. 

Physical  types,  40,  41-42. 

Pictographic  hieroglyphs,  Mayan, 
112-113. 

Piedras  Negras,  67,  90, 124, 125, 131. 

Pima,  34. 

Pipiles,  164. 

Place  Names,  Aztecan,  198. 

Plants,  food,  cultivation  of,  in  the 
New  World,  47,  224. 

Poetry,  Aztecan,  212-214. 

Polychrome  pottery,  Cholula,  160; 
Mayan,  79. 

Portraiture,  in  archaic  art,  48;  in 
Mayan  art,  86,  128. 

Post  Archaic  Horizon,  64. 

Potato,  cultivated  in  Peru,  47. 

Pottery,  archaic,  53-54,  131,  146. 

Pottery,  archaic,  53,  54,  131,  146; 
Aztecan,  214-215;  at  Atzcapotz- 
alco,  44;  from  Cholula,  159,  160; 
Chorotegan,  167;  cloisonne,  San 
Juan  Teotihuacan,  158;  distribu- 
tion of,  56,  59;  Isthmian,  61,  62; 
Mayan,  77-81;  Mitla,  222;  mod- 
ern Mexican,  37;  northwestern 
region  of  Mexico,  161-162;  poly- 
chrome, Mayan,  79;  San  Juan 
Teotihuacan,  157;  with  semi- 
glaze,  166;  Zapotecan,  139,  143. 

Pouches,  Valiente  Indians,  38. 


236 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


Prayers,  representation  of  in  Tol- 
tecan  sculptures,  153. 

Priests,  Zapotecan,  145. 

Pre- Archaic  Horizon,  63. 

Protohistoric  Period,  Mayan  his- 
tory, 130. 

Pueblo  Vie  jo,  23. 

Pulque,  36. 

Pyramid,  Cholula,  156,  158-160; 
Mayan,  69;  Monte  Alban,  220; 
San  Juan  Teotihuacan,  155;  Tol- 
tecan,  153. 

Quetzalcoatl,  93,  151,  205. 
Quiches,  135. 
Quinatzin,  map,  181. 
Quirigua,  15,  67,  124. 

Rank,  among  the  Aztecs,  184. 

Rattles,  Aztecan,  214. 

Religion,  Aztecan,  201-205;  as  evi- 
denced by  archaic  art,  52;  Isth- 
mian region,  174;  Lacandone 
Indians,  39;  Mayan,  91-96,  177; 
Toltecan,  153;  Zapotecan,  145. 

River  systems,  Mexico  and  Central 
America,  17-18. 

Roman-nosed  God,  Mayan,  91,  92, 
93. 

Roof  comb,  on  Mayan  buildings,  76, 
126. 

Roofs,  on  Mayan  buildings,  72. 

Rooms,  Mayan  buildings,  72,  73. 

Ruins,  Usumacinta  Valley,  17-18. 

Sacrifices,  Aztecan,  to  the  gods,  177, 
human,  189,  192,  208;  human, 
Aztecan,  207,  210,  211;  human, 
shown  on  sculptures,  166;  human, 
Toltecan,  151;  Zapotecan,  145. 

Sacrificial  yokes,  Totonacan,  147- 
149. 

Saltillo  blankets,  37. 


San  Andres  Tuxtla,  137. 

San  Bias  Indians,  41. 

San  Juan  Teotihuacan,  155-158. 

San  Miguel  blankets,  37. 

Santa  Lucia  Cozumalhualpa,  164- 
166. 

Sculptural  art,  massive,  76-77. 

Sculptures,  archaic,  54-56;  common 
material  for,  19;  developments  in, 
as  a  check  to  chronology,  122; 
Isthmian  region,  61,  63,  169,  170; 
Mayan,  Middle  Period,  131;  San 
Juan  Teotihuacan,  157;  Santa 
Lucia  Cozumalhualpa,  164-166; 
sequence  in  style,  124;  style,  cor- 
related with  dates,  127;  Teno- 
chtitlan,  214;  at  Tula,  158;  wall, 
at  Copan,  76;  Zapotecan,  144. 

Seibal,  67,  88. 

Seri,  34 

Serpent,  archaic  pottery,  53-54;  in 
Chorotegan  art,  166-167;  con- 
ventional, of  the  Mayas,  83,  84- 
85;  heads,  comparison  of  Mayan 
and  Zapotecan,  139;  heads,  on 
Mayan  buildings,  76,  77;  influence 
on  Mayan  art,  89;  motive,  im- 
portance in  Mayan  art,  82-85;  in 
religion  of  the  Mayas,  89,  91. 

Shield  stone,  Cuernavaca,  193. 

Slabs,  sculptured  stone,  from  Costa 
Rica,  160,  169;  Zapotecan,  139. 

Smiling  faces,  Totonacan,  146-147. 

Social  organization,  Aztecan,  184- 
187. 

Songs,  Aztecan,  212,  213. 

Southern  Mexico,  culture  of,  217- 
220. 

Spear-thrower,  Tarascan,  217. 

Speech  scroll,  153,  166. 

Stability,  Mayan  buildings,  74. 

Stamps,  for  pottery  designs,  81. 


INDEX 


237 


Stature,  Indians  of  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral America,  41,  42. 

Stelae,   Mayan,  77;  Zapotecan,  139. 

Stocks,  language,  distribution  of, 
31-34. 

Stone,  collars,  Totonacan,  147-149; 
great  development  of  building  in, 
Copan  and  Mitla,  19;  sculpture, 
in,  54;  yokes,  149;  Zapotecan  art 
in,  139-141. 

Stratification,  archaeological,  at  Atz- 
capotzalco,  42^3,  153;  of  re- 
mains, Mexican  sites,  44-45;  of 
remains,  in  Peru,  56,  59. 

Structure,  two-roomed,  Mayan,  73- 
74. 

Sun  God,  Aztecan,  191. 

Suns,  sequence  of,  in  Aztecan  myth- 
ology, 206. 

Superstructures,  on  Mayan  build- 
ings, 76. 

Supplementary  series,  109,  111. 

Syllables,  phonetic  use  of,  Mayan, 
112. 

Symbolism,  religious,  Mayan,  89, 
91. 

Tarahumare,  34,  36. 

Tarascan  culture,  216-217. 

Tecpan,  183,  187-189.' 

Temple,  of  the  Cross,  section  of,  75; 

enclosure,  Tenochtitlan,  187-189; 

structure  of  Mayan,  69,  74;  of  the 

Sun,  Aztecan,  189. 
Temples,  Mayan,  73-74, 126;  Mitla, 

220-221;  Tenochtitlan,  187-189; 

Toltecan,  153;  Zapotecan,  139. 
Tenochtitlan,  11,  44,  181,  182,  184, 

186,  214. 
Teocentli,  46-47. 
Teonanacatl,  36. 
Teotihuacan,  152. 


Teotleco,   twelfth  month,  Aztecan 

210. 

Tepanecas,  182,  184. 
Tepehuane,  34. 
Teswin,  36. 
Teteocan,  206. 
Teteoinnan,  209. 
Textile,  art,  Cora  and  Huichol,  35- 

36;  art,  Mayan,  81;  decoration, 

Aztec,  215-216. 
Tezcatlipoca,  194,  203,  211. 
Tezcoco,  152,  172,  181,  184,  212. 
Tikal,  67,  74,  76,  124,  130. 
Time,  count,  Aztecan,  182;  Mayan, 

96-97,    99;    Toltecan,    150-151; 

Zapotecan,  145. 

Tizoc,  stone  of,  184,  189,  192-196. 
Tlachtli,  158,  223. 
Tlacopan,  184. 
Tlaloc,  God  of  Rain,  53,  157,  189, 

203,  204. 
Tlalocan,  207. 
Tlotzin,  map  of,  181. 
Toltecs,  150-154,  179. 
Tomb,  cruciform  near  Mitla,  219. 
Tombs,  cruciform,  222. 
Tonalamatl,  Aztecan,  211;  in  Dres- 
den Codex,  120,  121-122;  origin 

of,  97-99;  table,  99. 
Tonatiuh,  the  Sun  god,   191,  194, 

203,  204. 
Topography,   Mexico  and  Central 

America,  14-19. 
Totonacan  culture,  145-150. 
Totonacs,  137. 

Toxcatl,  Aztecan  month,  208. 
Traditions,  Mayan,  122. 
Transition  Period,  Mayan  history, 

132. 
Tribes,  Indian,  Mexico  and  Central 

America,  34,  35. 


238 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA 


Tribute,   lists,   Aztecan,   216;   roll,      War  God,  Aztecan,  194, 210;  Mayan, 


178,  217. 


96. 


Tripod  vessels,  archaic  period,  53.        War,  importance  in  Aztecan  organi- 

Tro-Cortesianus  Codex,  115.  zation,  184. 

Tula,  150,  151,  152,  158. 

Tun,  105. 

Turquoise,  Aztec  work  in,  215. 

Tuxtla  Statuette,  130,  137. 

Two-Headed  Dragon,  86,  91,  92,  93, 

124,  125. 
Tzintzuntzan,  216. 


Weapons,  shown  in  archaic  figur- 
ines, 52. 

Weaving,  shown  in  archaic  figur- 
ines, 52;  Tarascan,  217. 


Writing,  hieroglyphic,  Mayan,  65; 
Mayan    and   Aztecan,    114-115; 

Mexican,  187-201. 
Uaxactun,  130. 

Uinal,  lunar  month,  97.  xipe>  157>  2Q5,  209. 

Universe,   Aztecan   conceptions   of      xkichmook   77. 

the   205-207.  Xochicalco,  141,  152,  154,  156. 

Urns,  Zapotecan  funerary,  141-143. 
Uxmal,  House  of  the  Governor  at,      Xochimilco>  45>  183- 

Yatacas,  Tarascan  mounds,  216. . 

Vault,  Mayan  buildings,  72-73.  Yaxchilan,  67,  76,  95,  87. 

Venus,  Aztecan  festivals  in  con-  Year,  bearers,  Cuicatecan,  218,  220; 
nection  with,  212;  calendar,  conventional,  99-101;  symbol, 
Mayan,  109-112.  southern  Mexico,  218;  length  o, 

Volcanoes,  Mexico  and  Central  Am-  Mayan,  97;  Mayan,  the  truef 
erica,  16,  19.  104-107. 

Yum  Kaax,  94. 

Wall    construction,    La    Quemada, 

161;  Mayan,  70-72;  Mitla,  220-      Zapotecs,  culture  of,  137,  139-149. 
222.  Zotzils,  186. 


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This  publication  is  due  on  the  LAST  DATE 
and  HOUR  stamped  below. 


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1980 


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JUL8-70-7 
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DEC    8 1Sc, 


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DEC  10  1JJ 


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University  of  California 

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